
Class T/L M3_ 

Book iSlf/L__ 






COP^TRIGHT DEPOSm ' 






PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 

The reader is requested to make sug-gestions as to 
desirable additions to the text of this book. Where 
can the author secure further cost data? What new 
subjects might advantageously be introduced in the 
next edition? A great service will be rendered not 
merely to the author, but to the whole engineering 
profession by answering these questions. My aim 
is to keep this book, as well as all other books that 
I publish, strictly up-to-date. Frequent revisions 
will be made. Therefore, if a reader would 
like to see any particular matter more fully treated, 
he will have my hearty co-operation. 

MYRON C. CLARK. 
13-21 Park Row, New York. 



Works of Balbert P. Gillette 

Handbook of Cost Data 

A Reference Book, Giving Methods of 
Construction and Actual Costs of 
Materials and Labor on Numerous 
Engineering Works. XII + 610 pages, 
16mo., Morocco $4.00 

Rock Excavation 

Metliods and Cost 

A Practical Treatise on the Excava- 
tion of Rock. VIII + 376 pages, 56 
figures. Small 8 vo., Cloth $3.00 

EartliTWork and Its Cost 

A practical Treatise on the Excavation 
and Handling of Earth. X + 244 
pages, 54 figures. Small 8vo., Cloth. $2.00 

Economics of Road Construction 

A Monograph on Earth, Macadam and 
Telford Roads. VI + 41 pages, 9 
figures. 8vo., Cloth $1.00 



HANDBOOK 



COST DATA 



CONTRACTORS AND ENGINEERS 



4 REFERENCE BOOK GIVING METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION AND 

ACTUAL COSTS OF MATERIALS AND LABOR ON 

NUMEROUS ENGINEERING WORKS 



BY 

HALBERT P. GILLETTE 

Consulting Engineer 

Member American Society of Civil Engineers, Member American 

Institute of Mining Engineers, Late Associate 

Editor Engineering News 



NEW YORK 

MYRON C. CLARK 
13-21 Park Row 



1905 



A^'?A 



T^-1E LIBRARY OF '1 

COiNiGReSS-., j 

two O'.HMes t^8ceive-J^ • 

SEP, 30 i905 ^' 
/ 2 2b3 2, 



Copyright, 1905 

By 
Myron 0. Olabk 






/r. 



r'\ 



PREFACE. 

Four yeai-s ago I announced in my little book, "Eco- 
nomics of Road Construction," that I had in preparation a 
handbook of cost data for engineers and contractors. At 
that time this handbook had been under way for eight 
years, and it seemed nearly ready for publication; but other 
duties prevented a speedy finishing of the task. The delay, 
however, has been fortunate in that I have added very 
much to my knowledge of the general subject. In the 
meantime, two books have grown out of the original manu- 
script, namely, my books on earthwork and on rock ex- 
cavation. The writing of these two books has better fitted 
me for the writing of this book, and has put me in touch 
with many engineers and contractors who have generously 
furnished additional cost data. 

So far as I know, this is the first book on engineering 
cost data ever published. There are ''price books" written 
for house builders, but they are essentially what their 
name 4mplies — books on prices of materials and contract 
prices. This book differs from all such works, aside from 
the fact that it covers the whole field of civil engineering, 
in that it is a book in which costs are analyzed and dis- 
cussed. A contract price is one thing, a contract cost is an 
entirely different thing, in spite of the common confusion of 
these terms. In order fully to understand any analysis of 
unit costs it is necessary to have a detailed description of 
the methods used in construction and operation. Hence, 
although itemized cost data occupy many scores of pages in 
this book, there are many more scores of pages devoted to 
descriptions of how the work was done, the organization of 
the forces, and the machines used. The records, in all 
cases, are actual records taken from every available source 
of published information, from personal letters sent by 
engineers and contractors and from my own records. 

It is often said that cost data are of no value to an in- 
experienced man. Generally the men who make such state- 



iv PREFACE. 

merits are themselves possessed of few records of cost, or 
use this argument as an excuse for not making public such 
records as they do possess. The very secretiveness of men 
having cost data which they refuse to make public, nullifies 
their statement that such data can be of no use to others. 

We also hear it argued that conditions vary so widely 
that grave errors occur when an attempt is made to apply 
published cost data. Those who have not been trained to 
study the conditions affecting costs are likely to make 
serious blunders in any case; but, if this book is in even 
a slight degree what it aims to be, it will be of greatest 
benefit to just such men; for it will indicate to them how to 
analyze costs and how to study methods of performing 
work economically. 

Many of the erroneous ideas about the value of cost 
recording arise from a confusion of the term cost with the 
term price. This is not a handbook of prices, although 
many prices are given. I could have filled ten volumes 
with prices, and with summaries of costs written by engi- 
neers who have failed to state rates of wages and conditions 
under which the work was performed. But, a short time 
after publication, all such matter is hardly worth the ink 
that it is printed with, since wages and prices are subject 
to constant change. 

The attention of contractors is called to the first part of 
the book in which systems of cost keeping are described. 
I have outlined what I believe to be some of the best sys- 
tems of cost keeping. Samples of other record cards and 
methods than my own are shown; for my purpose has been 
to elucidate principles, rather than to exploit pet theories 
as to business management and accounting. 

HALBERT P. GILLETTE. 

New York, Sept. 1, 1905. 



CONTENTS 



Page 
SECTION I.— Cost Keeping, 
Preparing Estimates, Organiza- 
tion of Forces, etc 1 

Objects of Cost Keeping... 1 
Why Daily Cost Records are 

Eexsential 3 

Records Should Show Out- 
puts of Individuals 4 

Difficulty of Measuring 

Dally Output o 

Unit Method of Measuring 

Output 6 

Recording Output by Weigh- 
ing 8 

Record Cardg Attached to 

Bach Piece of Work 

Record Cards Used with a 

Conductor's Punch 10 

I se of a Mimeograph for 
Printing Record Cards. . . 12 

Automatic Time Stamps 12 

Time Cards and Time Books 13 
Cards for Recording Ma- 
terials Received 17 

Use of Slide 'Rules and 

Wage Multiplying Tables. 20 
Recording Work by Minute 

Hand Observations 20 

How to Prepare Estimates 

and Bids 25 

Plant lExpense; Interest and 

Depreciation 26 

Cost of Fuel for Engines 29 

Cost of Superintendence and 

General Expense 20 

Percentage to Allow for Con- 
tingencies 29 

Percentage to Allow for 

Profits 30 

List Prices and Discounts. 31 

Insurance of Workmen 31 

Schedule of Items of Cost. . 32 

Unbalanced Bids 33 

Causes of Underestimates.. 35 



Page 

Uniformity in Units of Mea- 
surement 37 

Subletting Work and Pur- 
chasing Materials 38 

Contract vs. Day-Labor 

Work 40 

Instructions to Superintend- 
ents and Foreman . " 42 

Some Hints for Young Con- 
tractors 47 

SECTION II.— Cost of Earth 

Excavation 73 

E)arth Measurement 73 

Earth Shrinkage 73 

Kinds of Earth 74 

Definitions of Haul and Lead 75 

Work of Teams 76 

'Cost of Maintaining Teams. 77, 

Cost of Plowing 79 

Cost of Picking and Shov- 
eling 79 

Cost of Trimming, Rolling, 

etc 80 

Cost of Wheelbarrow Work 81 

Cost by One-Horse Carts. . 82 

Cost by Wagons 83 

Cost by Drag Scrapers 84 

Cost by Wheel Scrapers 86 

Cost by Elevating Graders. . 88 

Steam Shovel Data 90 

Hauling with Dinkeys 92 

Summary of the Cost of 

Steam Shovel Work 95 

References 97 

SECTION 111.— Cost of Rock 
Excavation, Quarrying and 

Crushing 99 

Weight and Voids 99 

Measurement of Rock 100 

Kinds of Hand Drills 102 

Cost of Hammer Drilling... 103 

Cost of Churn Drilling 105 



vi 



CONTENTS. 



Pago 

Sizes of Air Drills lO'S 

Test of Air Consumption at 

the Rose Deep Mine 108 

Tables of Air Consumption 

in Catalogues 106 

Steam Consumption 107 

Gasolene Air Compressors.. 100 
Percentage of Lost Time in 

Drilling 100 

Rule for Estimating Feet 

Drilled per Shift 110 

Rates of Drilling in Differ- 
ent Rocks 113 

Cost of Sharpening Bits 114 

Cost of Drill Repair.3 114 

Cost of Operating Drills 115 

Cost of Loading by Hand. . 116 
Cost of Handling Crushed 

Sttone 11"^ 

Cost of Handling with a 

Derrick 118 

Cost of Loading with Steam 

Shovels 118 

Cost of Handling in Carts 

and Wagons 110 

Open-Cut Excavation 120 

Spacing •Holes in Open-Cut 

Excavation 120 

Cost of Excavating Sand- 
stone and Shale 122 

Summary 123 

Trenching in iRock 124 

Cost of Drilling and Blasting 125 
Cost of Quarrying and 

Crushing Trap 128 

Sizes and Weight of Crushed 

Trap 129 

Cost of Breaking Stone by 

Hand 130 

Cost of Crushing at Newton, 

Mass 130 

Cost of Quarrying and 

Crushing Quartzite 131 

Other Data on Crushing 132 

References 133 



Page 
SECTION lY.— Cost of Roads, 

Pavements, Walks, etc 134 

Cost of Quarrying and 
Crushing for Macadam... 134 

'Cost of Hauling 135 

Cost of Spreading 137 

Cost of Rolling 137 

Cost of Sprinkling 138 

Quantity of Stone and 

Binder Required 139 

Summary of Cost 140 

Cost of a Sandstone and 

Trap Macadam ... 141 

Cost of (Maintenance of 

Steam Rollers 143 

Cost of a Limestone Mac- 
adam Road 143 

Cost of Grading a Road. . . . 145 
'Cost of Grading Roads with 

Road Machine 145 

Cost of Crushing and Haul- 
ing Cobblestone 146 

Cost of Resurfacing Old 

Limestone Macadam 147 

Cost of Repairing Sandstone 

Macadam 149 

Cost of Scarifying Macadam 152 
*Cost of Repairing Macadam 

in Massachusetts 152 

Cost of Resurfacing Mac- 
adam 153 

Cost of Sprinkling Streets. . 154 

Cost of Telford Roads 155 

Cost of Laying Two Brick 

Pavements 157 

Cost of a Brick Pavement, 

Champaign, 111 162 

Cost of a Brick Pavement in 

Minneapolis . . . .» 165 

Cost of a *Brick Pavement, 

■Memphis, Tenn 166 

Cost of 'Chipping Tar off 

Bricks 166 

Cost of a Stone Block Pave- 
ment 167 

Cost of Granite Block Pave- 
ment on Concrete 170 



CONTENTS, 



vii 



Page 
Cost of Laying Asphalt 

Pavements at Winnipeg. . 171 
Cost of Laying Asphalt 

Pavement 175 

Cost of Cement Walks 176 

Cost of Cement Walks in 

Iowa 177 

Cost of a Cement Walk, 

San Francisco 178 

Cost of a Cement Walk, 

Forbes Hill Reservoir.... 17S 
Cost of a Concrete Curb and 

Gutter 179 

Cost of Laying Stone Curbs. 181 

SECTION v.— Cos^ of Stone 
Masonry 182 

Definitions ................ 182 

Percentage of Mortar in 

^Stone M'asonry 188 

Cost of Laying Masonry.... 191 
Estimating the Cost of Stone 

Dressing 193 

Data on Stone Sawing 195 

Cost of Stone Dressing 197 

Cost of Cutting Limestone 

and Sa-ndstone 197 

Cost of Sandstone Bridge 

Piers 198 

Cost of Cutting Granite for 

a Dam 198 

Cost of Cutting Granite, 

New York City 199 

Cost of Quarrying, Cutting 

and Laying Granite 201 

Cost of Plug Drilling by 

Hand 203 

Cost of Pneumatic Plug 

Drilling 203 

Cost of Quarrying Granite. . 204 
Cost of a Masonry Arch 

Bridge 205 

Cost of Centers for 30-ft. 

Arch 207 

Cost of Arch Culverts and 

Abutments, Erie Canal.. 208 



Page 
Cost of Lock Masonry, Erie 

Canal 210 

Cost of the Sweetwater Dam 211 
Cost of a Granite Dam, 

Cheyenne, Wyo 214 

Cost of a Rubble Dam 218 

Data on Laying Masonry 

with a Cableway 220 

Cost of Masonry and Tim- 
ber Crib Dam 220 

Cost of Laying Masonry, 

Dunning's Dam 222 

Cost of Quarrying and Lay- 
ing a Limestone Wall 223 

Cost of Laying Bridge Pier 

'Masonry 225 

Cost of the Sodom Dam 226 

Cost of Dams and Locks, 

Black Warrior River 230 

Cost of Rock-fill Dams 233 

Cost of Limestone and 

Sandstone Slope- Walls 233 

Cost of a Granite Slope-Wall 243 
Cost of Laying a Limestone 

Slope-Wall 243 

Cost of Excavating Masonry 244 
Cost 'of Painting Old Bridge 

Masonry 244 

Cost of Lining Tunnels.... 245 

SECTION Yl.— Cost of Concrete 
Construction of all Kinds 248 

Definitions 248 

Theory of the Quantity of 
Cement in Mortar and 
Concrete 250 

•Size and Weight of Barrels 
of Cement 256 

Effect of Moisture on Voids 
in Sand 258 

■Effect of Size of Sand 
Grains on Voids 259 

Voids in Broken Stone and 
Gravel 261 

Percentage of Water Re- 
quired in Mortar 266 

Cost of Sand 266 



COISITENTS, 



Page 

Cost of Washing Sand with 
a Hose 267 

Washing with Sand Ejectors 268 

Cost of Washing Sand in 
a Tank Washer 268 

Cost of Making Concrete by- 
Hand 269 

Unloading the Materials 
from Cars 270 

Cost of Loading the Mate- 
rials 271 

Cost of Transporting the 
Materials 272 

Cost of Mixing the Materials 274 

Cost of Loading and Haul- 
ing Concrete 275 

Cost of Dumping, Spreading 
and Ramming 276 

Cost of Superintendence.... 278 

Summary of Costs 279 

Cost of Mixing Concrete 
with Machines 281 

Cost of Pormis 283 

Cost of Lining and Plaster- 
ing a Reservoir, Forbes 
Hill, Mass 288 

Cost of Lining a Reservoir 
lat Canton, 111 291 

Cost of a Reservoir Floor at 
Pittsburg, Pa , . 291 

Cost of Lining a Reservoir. 292 

Cost of Concrete, Asphalt 
and Brick Reservoir Lin- 
ing 293 

Cost of Fortification Work, 
at Fort Point, Cal. 297 

Cost of Fortification Work. 299 

Cost of Oonerete Breakwa- 
ter, Buffalo, N. Y 300 

Cost of Concrete Locks, 
Coosa River, Ala 302 

Cost of Concrete Locks, I. 
& M. Canal 301 

Labor Cost of Retaining 
Walls 315 

Cost of Retaining Walls, 
Chicago Drainage Canal. 318 



Page 

Cost of a Retaining Wall.. 324 

Cost of Abutments and 
Piers, LGnesome Valley 
Viaduct 321 

Cost of 'Bridge Abutments. 326 

Cost of 6 Arch Culverts and 
6 Bridge Abutments, N. C. 
& St. L. Ry 327 

Cost of an Arch Culvert... 330 

Concrete Arch Viaduct, S. 
P., L. A. & S. L. R. R. 331 

Cost of a Highway Arch 
Bridge 331 

Cost of a Reinforced Arch 
Highway Bridge 332 

Cost of 3 Reinforced Arch 
Bridges, L. S. & M. S. 
Ry. 334 

Cost of a Blast Furnace 
Foundation 335 

Example of High Cost of 
Tamping 336 

Cost of Filling Pier Cylin- 
ders with Concrete 336 

Cost of Concrete Work on 
Ry. Culverts 337 

Cost of Subaqueous Concrete 
for a Pier. 339 

Cost of Concrete Base for 
Pavements 344 

Cost of Machine Mixing and 
Wagon Hauling 348 

Cost of Mixing with a Grav- 
ity Mixer 350 

Cost of Concrete Made with 
a Trump Mixer 351 

Cost of Groined Arches and 
Forms, Albany Filter 
Plant 353 

Cost of Lining a Water- 
Works Tunnel 355 

Cost of Making Blocks for 
a Concrete Sewer 356 

Cost of Concrete Block Man- 
holes 359 

Cost of Conduit Foundation 
and Invert 359 



CONTENTS. 



ix 



Page 

Cost of Concrete-Steel Build- 
ing Columns 3G0 

Cost of Mixing and Placing 
Concrete for a Building. . 363 

Cost of Concrete Building 
©locks 361 

Cost of a Concrete-Steel 
Sewer 365 

Cost of Concrete-Steel Sew- 
er, Wilmington, Del 306 

Cost of Concrete-Steel Sew- 
er at Cleveland, 371 

Cost of a Concrete- Steel 
Conduit 374 

Concrete- Steel Conduit tor 
the Jersey City Water Sup- 
ply Co 381 

Cost of Bush-Hammering 
Concrete 383 

Rubble Concrete Data 383 

Some English Data on Rub- 
ble Concrete 387 

Cost of a Rubble Concrete 
'Abutment 388 

Cost of Removing Efflores- 
cence with Acid 389 

Co'st of Sylvester Wash and 
Sylvester Mortar 389 

SECTION YU.— Cost of Water- 
Works 892 

Cost of Loading and Haul- 
ing Cast Iron Pipe 392 

Prices of Cast Iron Pipe 
Since 1882 392 

Weight of Cast Iron Pipe. . 393 

Water Pipe Trenches....... 393 

Cost of Trenching 395 

Cost of Trenching, Great 
Falls, Mont 395 

Cost of Trenching, Astoria, 
Oregon 395 

Cost of Trenching, Hilburn, 
N. Y 390 

Cost of Trenching and Pipe 
Laying, Providence, R. I. 396 

Cost of Water Pipe Laid at 
Boston 399 



Page 
Cost of Water Pipe Laid at 

Alliance, 401 

Cost of Water Pipe Laid at 

Porterville, Cal 401 

An Unusually Expensive 

Piece of Work 406 

Cost of a 6-in Pipe Line in 

'Ohio 407 

Cost of Water Pipe Laid in a 

Southern City 408 

Cost of Taking Up an Old 

Pipe Line 4!l0 

Cost of Subaqueous Pipe 

Laying 410 

Cost of Laying Pipe Across 

the Susquehanna 412 

Cost of Laying a 6-in. Pipe 

Under Water 413 

Cost of Laying Pipe Across 

the Willam'ette River 413 

Cost of a Wood Pipe Line. . 413 
Cost of a 64-HP. Gasolene 

Pumping Plant and Pump- 
ing 414 

Cost of a Pump Pit 415 

SECTION VIII.— Cost of Sewers. 
Vitrified Conduits and Tile 
Drains 417 

General Considerations .... 417 

Cost of Excavating with 
Trench Machines 418 

Cost of Difficult Trench Ex- 
cavation in Mass 420 

Cost of Trenching by Cable- 
ways 423 

Cost of Trenching with 
Trench Excavators 426 

Cost of Pumping Water 
from Trenches 427 

Sizes and Prices of Sewer 
Pipe 427 

Cement Required for Sewer 
Pipe Joints 429 

Cost of Hauling Sewer Pipe. 431 

Cost of Laying Sewer Pipe. 431 

Diagram Giving Contract 
Prices of Sewers 432 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
Cost of 8-in. Sewer, Ithaca, 

N. Y 431 

Cost of a 12-in. Pipe Sewer, 

Menasha, Wis 434 

Cost of 8-in. to 18-in. Sew- 
ers at Cardele, Ga 435 

Cost of Sheeting at Peoria, 

III 435 

Cost of 12-in. Sewers in To- 

r*o.nto, Canada 437 

Brick Sewer Data 437 

Cost of Brick Manholes... 441 
Cost of Pipe and Brick Sew- 
ers, St. Louis 441 

Cost of 'Large Brick Sew- 
ers, Denver, Colo 445 

Cost of a Concrete and Brick 

Sewer 450 

Cost of a Brick Conduit.... 452 

Cost of Tile Drains 454 

Vitrified Conduit Data 455 

Cost of Laying Electric Con- 
duits 456 

Cost of Brick Manholes for 

Electric Conduits 457 

Cost of Vitrified Conduits, 

Memphis, Tenn 457 

Cost of Making Cement Pipe 459 
Cost of Concrete-Steel Sew- 
ers (^e (Section VI.) 460 

SECTION IX.— Cost of Piling, 

Trestling and Timber Work 461 

Piles 461 

Pile Drivers 462 

Steam Hammer vs. the Drop 

Hammer 464 

Cost of Raymond Concrete 

Piles 467 

Cost of Making Piles 469 

Cost of Driving Piles with a 

Horse Driver 469 

Cost of Driving Foundation 

Piles for a Building 470 

Cost of Driving Piles for 

Wagon Road Trestles 472 



Page 
Cost of Driving Piles for a 

Trestle, N. P. Ry 473 

Cost of Pile Driving, O. & 

St. L. Ry 474 

Cost of Pile Driving, C. & 

E. I. Ry 475 

Record for Rapid Driving on 

O. & M. R. R.... 475 

Cost of a Pile Trestle 475 

Cost of a Pile Docking 479 

Data on Driving Plumb and 

Batter Piles, N. Y. Docks. 480 
Data on Driving Piles for 

Docks. N. Y 481 

Cost of Driving and Sawing 

Off Piles 482 

Data on Driving with a 
St«am Hammer and Saw- 
ing Off Piles... .. 482 

Cost of Driving Piles for a 

Swing Bridge 483 

Cost of Sawing Off 42 Piles 

Under Water 484 

Data on Sawing Off Burling- 
ton 'Bridge Pier Piles.... 484 

Cost of Pulling Piles 485 

Cost of Blasting Piles 486 

Cost of Pulling and Driving 

Piles for a Guard Pier... 486 
Measurement of Timber 

Work • 488 

Co6t of 'Manufacturing 

Lumber 489 

Cost of Creosoting 489 

Cost of Loading and Hauling 

Timber • . 490 

Sawing, Boring and Adzing. 490 
Methods and Cost of Build- 
ing a Railway Trestle.... 492 
Cost of a Timber Viaduct. . 494 
Cost of Building an Ap- 
proach to a Bridge 495 

Cost of 'Building a Trestle 

and a Bridge Under Traffic 496 
Cost of Wagon Road Tres- 
tles 496 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Page 
Cost of 160-ft. Span Howe 

Truss Bridges 497 

Oo'St of a Wooden Reservoir 

Roof on Iron Posts 501 

Cost of a Crib Dam 502 

Cost of Two Small Scows. . . 504 

Cost of a Plume 505 

Cost of a Coffer- dam and 

Aqueduct 506 

Cost of Four Caissons 507 

Co'st of Making Bodies for 

Dump Cars 508 

Cost of Making Tool Boxes. 509 
Cost of Plank Roads 509 

SECTION X.— Cost of Erecting 

Buildings 511 

Estimating Quantity of 

Lumber 511 

Cost of iBuildings per Cu. 

Ft 513 

Cost of R. R. Buildings per 

Sq. Ft 514 

Cost 'Of Items of Buildings 

by Percentages 515 

Cost of Erecting 5 Different 

Kinds of Buildings 516 

Cost of Framing and Placing 

Lumber 516 

Cost of Laying and Smooth- 
ing Floors 517 

Cost of Celling, Wainscoting 

and Siding 518 

Cost of Shingling 519 

Cost of Laying Base-Boards 519 
Cost of Placing Doors, Win- 
dows and Blinds 520 

Cost of Closets and Side- 
boards 521 

Cost of Making Stairs 521 

Cost of Tin Roofing 521 

Building Papers and Felts.. 522 

Cofst of Gravel Roofs 523 

CO'st of Slate Roofs 524 

Brick Masonry Data 525 

Cost of Laying Brick 52G 



Page 
Cost of Mortar 527 

Cost of Placing Tile Fire- 
proofing 528 

Cost of Brick Chimneys '528 

Cost of High 'Brick Chimney 

Stacks 528 

Cost of Rubble Walls 528 

Cost of Ashlar 529 

Cost of Wood Lathing 529 

Cost of Metal Lathing 530 

Cost of Plaster 530 

Cost of Steel Mill and Mine 

Buildings 531 

Cost of Erecting the Steel in 

Four Buildings 533 

References 533 

SECTION XI.- Cost of Steam 

and Electric Railways 535 

Cost of Making Hewed Ties 535 
Cost of Timber Trestles 

and Culverts 533 

A Cheap Way of Loading 

Ties 536 

A Method of Unloading Rails 536 
Cost of Tracklaying M., St. 

P. & S. S. M. Ry 537 

Cost of Tracklaying 50-lb. 

Rails 539 

Cost of Tracklaying, A., T. 

& S. Fe Ry 542 

Record of Rapid Construc- 
tion on the C. P. Ry 543 

Cost of Tracklaying P. S. & 

N. R. R 544 

Cost of Tracklaying Under 

Traffic 544 

Cost of . Tracklaying with 

Machines 544 

Cost of Laying a Narrow 

Gage Track 545 

Cost of Gravel Ballasting 

Single Track 546 

Cost of BallastiDg, Using 

Dump Cars 546 

Cost of Railway Lines 547 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



Pago 

Cost of a Logging Railway. . 548 

Cost of Electric Railway.. 549 

Cost of Erecting Trolley 

Poles 551 

SECTION XII.— Cos^ of Bridge 
Erection and Painting 552 

Weight of Steel Bridges... 552 

Estimating Cost of Bridge 
Erection 552 

Cost of Bridge and Viaduct 
Erection 553 

Cost of Erecting Steel. N. Y. 
Subway 553 

Cost of Pneumiatic Riveting. 554 

Cost lof Tearing Down a 
Small Bridge 555 

Cost of Moving a 65-ft. 
Bridge and New Abut- 
ments 556 

Cost of Paint 556 

Painting Data 557 

Weight and Surface Area of 
Steel Bridges 557 

Cost of Painting a Tin Roof. 558 

Cost of Paintmg a Howe 
Truss Bridge 558 

Cost of Painting 6 R. R. 
'Bridges 558 

Cost of Painting 6 R. R. 
Bridges and 2 Viaducts. . 559 

Cost of Painting 50 Plate 
Girder Bridges 561 

Cost of Cleaning and Paint- 
ing 10 Bridges 562 

Cost of Painting 48 Bridges 
and 2 Viaducts 563 

Cost of Cleaning and Paint- 
ing 4 Bridges, St. Louis.. 565 

SECTION XIII.— Cos^ of Rail- 
way and Topographic Surveys. . 567 
Rations for Men Camping. . 567 
Equipment for and Cost of 
Railroad Surveys 570 



Page 

Cost of Railway Surveys. . . . 574 

Cost of Transit Lines in 
Heavy Timber 575 

Cost of Topographic Survey 
for 160- Acre Park 576 

Cost of Topographic Survey 
of St. Louis 577 

Cost of Stadia Survey, Balti- 
more 577 

Cost of Topographic Survey, 
Westchester Co., N. Y.... 578 

Cost of Topographic purvey 
Near Baltimore 578 

Cost of Three Stadia Topo- 
graphic Surveys 579 

Cost of Surveys, Erie Canal. 58) 

Cost of U. S. Deep Water 
Way Survey, N. Y 582 

Cost of Government Topo- 
graphic Surveys 583 

Cost of Sounding Through 
Ice 584 

SECTION XIV.— Cost of Miscella- 
neous Structures 585 

Cost of Fences 585 

Cost of a Gas Pipe Hand 
Railing 586 

Cost of a Brush and Stone 
Revetment 587 

Cost of Clearing Land 589 

Cost of Cord wood and Cost 
of a Wire Rope Tramway. 590 

Cost of Lining a Reservoir 
with Asphalt 591 

Cost of Handling and 
Screening Cinders 594 

Cost of Puddle 595 

Cost of a Bridge Founda- 
tion and Cofferdam 597 

Haufliing Heavy Machinery 
on Wagons 602 

Size, Weight and Price of 
Expanded Metal 602 

Price of Mineral Wool 603 

Cost of Sodding 603 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



SECTION I. 

COST KEEPING, PREPARING ESTIMATES, ORGANIZA- 
TION OP FORCES, ETC. 

Objects of Cost Keeping. — There are two principal ob- 
jects in keeping itemized records of cost: (1) To enable the 
contractor or engineer to determine what will be fair unit 
prices for similar work in the future; and (2) to enable 
the contractor to analyze his expenditures with a view to 
improving his foremanship, class of laborers, plant equip- 
ment, and the like. To an engineer this second object is 
often of little consequence, excepting in so far as it as- 
sists him in better attaining the first object; but to a con- 
tractor the second object is of vital importance. Up to 
the present time few contractors have awakened to the 
possibility of effecting great savings in cost by simply de- 
veloping a system of daily itemized cost recording. The 
cost of maintaining such a system, slight though it is, has 
not appeared to be justified by the results, because the re- 
sults have not been 'made public by those who have de- 
veloped cost recording systems. In fact, to the majority of 
contractors it appears to have occurred that there is but 
one advantage in accurate cost keeping, namely, the abil- 
ity to predict the value of future work with slightly greater 
accuracy. The truth is, however, that this advantage is 
slight, indeed, compared with the discovery of laziness that 
results from keeping an itemized daily record of costs. I 
am speaking not only from my own experience, but from 
the experience of several of the most successful construc- 
tion companies in America, whose managers have fur- 
nished me with many striking examples of reductions in 
cost effected by a study of the daily records of work done. 

As incidental consequences of proper cost keeping there 
are certain other advantages, among which are the fol- 
lowing: (1) The wits of the managers, foremen and skilled 
workers are sharpened; because each man feels that he is 
under a strict watch; and that there is a chance for merit to 



2 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

become known, and, being known, to receive its reward. 
(2) Pewei' foremen are required, and one good foreman can 
direct the work of a far greater number of men. (3) *'Pad- 
ded payrolls" are practically done away with, and thefts 
of tools, food and materials reduced to a minimum. (4) 
Machines are kept in better order and less subject to abuse, 
because a falling off in output of any machine due to such 
abuse is quickly discovered. (5) When a contractor is 
known to have a good system of daily recording his work, 
engineers and architects are more apt to favor giving him 
extra work, paying him actual cost plus a fixed sum, or plus 
a percentage for his supervision and the use of his plant. 

These are some of the incidental advantages of keeping 
such a system of costs as I am about to outline, but the 
term "incidental advantages" should not deceive by making 
it appear that they are of minor importance— thrown in 
for good measure, as it were. Any one of them may be 
sufficient to turn a loss into a profit on work of miagnitude. 

The young civil engineer, whether before graduation 
from college or afterward, will find that an analysis of the 
cost of each item of work which comes under his observa- 
tion, is the best possible training for him, even if he in^ 
tends to be a designing engineer only. If he is a rodman on 
a survey he should keep records of progress on each kind of 
work so that he will be able to judge the efficiency of men 
working under him in the future when he shall himself be 
in charge of a party. If he is an inspector on construction 
he should attempt to record daily progress of the work, 
and of quantities of materials used; for tthus Tie will dis- 
cover the difference between good and poor designs of 
structures. He will learn that some of the greatest engi- 
neers have made the greatest blunders in economics; and 
this, if he is of the proper engineering metal, will not 
puff him up with an idea of his own superior insight, but 
vv^ill lead him to think with greater thoroughness. He will 
thus come to see that specifications are as important as the 
design itself — indeed, that they are part of the design, and 
that it is fatal to good engineering to copy a specification 
without weighing the dollars and cents effect of every word 
and phrase. He will see that there is more than strains 
and stresses in the design of a bridge, and more than co- 
efficients of friction in conduits and canals. 



COST KEEPING, 3 

Why Daily Cost Records Are Essential. — In a vague 
way many contractors realize the imperfection of the pres- 
ent common -method of ascertaining costs of items of work. 
The common method, it should be stated, is to charge up 
against earthwork, for example, all the expenditures in- 
curred in loosening, loading, conveying and placing the 
earth. The accounts are balanced once a month, so that 
when the engineer's monthly estimate of earth yardage is 
received, it is necessary merely to divide the total ex- 
penditure on earthwork by the total yardage to- ascertain 
the cost per cubic yard. So with every other item; and each 
of the several items may be subdivided into as many sub- 
items as seems desirable. 

This common method of cost recording involves simply 
keeping the time of the gangs of men working on each 
class of construction, no effort being made to find out the 
daily output of each gang. There are certain classes of 
work that are easily measured each day, pipe laying, for 
example, and many contractors require the time-keeper 
or the foreman to record daily progress on such work; but, 
for the most part, construction work is not measured up 
daily, or even weekly, but only once a month. Even then 
the "estimate" is more apt to be a guess rather than an 
actual measurement. At best this common method serves 
only one object, and that is the least important object of 
cost keeping, namely, to indicate whether the contract 
prices are too low or too high. Scarcely any light is thrown 
upon the vital question of efficiency of men and plant; and, 
even when the monthly returns do indicate an unreasonably 
low output, the finger of the manager usually can not be 
laid upon the cause. Therefore to secure the most im- 
portant advantages of cost recording, a system must be de- 
vised that will give daily records of progress. I am aware 
that many experienced men will be tempted to read no fur- 
ther, believing that the realm of theory and idealism is 
about to be entered by the writer. However, some encour- 
agement may be given by stating that no system will be 
described that has not been in actual use long enough to 
establish its practical value. 

Without a daily record of work done, the foreman and the 
men feel at liberty to work fast one day and slow the next — 
fast when the general manager is about; slow when he is 



4 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

away. The work moves by fits, and the reactions of slow- 
ness that occur after the spells of activity are generally so 
prolonged as to more than wipe out all gains due to unusual 
diligence. Then, again, it is much easier to make excuses 
for failure to have made satisfactory progress, when the 
excuses have 'to be made only once a month than when they 
must be made once a day. 

The day is the unit of pay for work done, and it should be 
the unit in which the work is measured, if satisfactory at- 
tempt is to be made to secure a fair return for the wages 
paid. 

Records Should Show Outputs of Individuals. — ^The 
ideal system of cost keeping would show not only the daily 
output on each class of work, but the individual output 
of every worker. But there are many classes of work in- 
volving the cooperation of several men, making it im- 
practicable to obtain a record of the work done by each. 
Then the aim should be to divide the forces into gangs, each 
gang having its special work which can be measured and 
recorded daily. Usually it is desirable to put each gang 
under a foreman who is held responsible for its output. 
In many cases it is sufficient to select one of the workers as 
the boss of the gang, but a working boss who assists the 
other men in everything they do. The aim in any case is to 
secure a gang working as a unit, with some one man in 
charge of the unit and responsible for its output. Then if 
the work is such that the output of each man in the gang 
can be measured separately, the most perfect system of cost 
recording can be established. To indicate by an example 
what can be done, let us take a gang of 12 men laying a 
slope-wall paving, all laboring in the usual helter-skelter 
way together, working individually at times, and at other 
times assisting one another in placing large stones. A 
foreman is in charge of this gang and reports weekly pro- 
gress. The gang appears to be organized, but in fact it is 
only partly organized, since it is possible to secure the 
daily output of every mason and dispense with the fore- 
man. To organize this gang the first step is to divide the 
slope into lots by means of ''profile strips" nailed to small 
posts driven into the ground. The bottom of each of these 
strips is exactly level with the finished face of the pro- 
posed slope-wall, so that a cord, stretched from strip to strip, 



COST KEEPING. 5 

will give a true line to work to. The profile strips are set 
13i^ ft. apart, so that every lineal fcot on the strip means V2 
cu. yd. of slope wall, if the wall is 1 ft. thick. Each mason 
is assigned to one lot, hetween two profile strips, and the 
lots are numbered consecutively with red chalk marks on 
the posts. The profile strips are of 2 x 4 dressed pine, 
painted with foot marks, so that a time-keeper can see at a 
glance the height to which the wall in any given lot has 
reached at the end of the day. There is no measuring to be 
done after the strips are nailed in place, yet the time-keeper 
and the masons themselves can keep a perfect record of daily 
progress. After the work has been under way a short time, 
it will be evident that a laborer to every two masons, say, 
will be necessary to deliver stone down the slope. The 
gang is now organized, the foreman is put at other work, 
and results are awaited. At first the average output is but 
little better than before, but certain of the masons do much 
better than the average. Their wages are then increased 
somewhat, and perhaps two or more of the slower masons 
are discharged. Immediately, if there are no unions to 
interfere, the output of the men increases. At the end of a 
week I have had the average yardage increase 50%, and in- 
dividual yardage increase much more, the quality of the 
workmanship remaining as before. The men receive higher 
wages and the contractor increases his profits, both by vir- 
tue of the greater output and by reducing the cost of super- 
vision. I have been away from such work, after organizing 
it, for two weeks at a time, without a foreman in direct 
charge, yet the output has not fallen off. This is the great 
advantage of recording the daily output of individual 
workers. 

Difficulty of Measuring Daily Output. — ^There are 
three general classes of contract work that are easily meas- 
ured; (1) work on single units; (2) work that progresses 
along :a straight line; and (3) work that progresses over an 
area between two straight lines. We have just had an ex- 
aimple (slope-walling) of the last named class. Street pav- 
ing, road graveling and macadamizing, some kinds of paint- 
ing, plastering, roofing, and the like, are other examples of 
work that can be divided into lots or blocks. 

There are a good many examples of linear work, (such as 



6 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

track laying, pipe laying, tunneling, placing moldings, some 
kinds of ditch and trench work, placing curbs, etc. 

Of work on single units, which need but to be counted, 
there are innumerable examples, such as erecting fence 
posts and poles, hanging doors, pile driving, hauling loads 
of a given size, etc. 

When we take these three classes of work that are easily 
measured, we have left comparatively few classes that are 
measured with difficulty. Still enough are left to be a 
source of worry to the man who is installing a cost record- 
ing system. Nearly all massive work that is measured by 
the cubic yard, such as masonry and excavation, requires 
careful thought on the part of him who is trying to secure 
daily progress reports. Work on timber and structural 
steel is also difficult to measure daily, but I believe that no 
class of work is so complex that some satisfactory 'method 
of daily measurement can not be devised. It is the devising 
of a simple and practical way of measuring the daily output 
of the men that will test the ingenuity of the contractor or 
engineer in charge. 

We shall now consider a few of the devices that have 
been successfully used in securing daily measurements of 
output. 

Tlie Unit Method of Measuring Output. — The or- 
dinary foreman is not an engineer or even a fair mathe- 
matician. Often he can not write clearly. Any system of 
daily cost keeping that does not take this fact into account 
will be a failure. With this in mind, the aim should be to 
make the method of recording progress so simple that 
scarcely any mental effort is required on the part of the 
foreman, or time-keeper, or workman who' records the 
daily output. It is desirable that not even a tape line be 
used by the recorder, and that he be not required to com- 
pute the length, area or volume of the work done. How, it 
will be asked, can this end be attained? 

Many kinds of work can be divided into units of equal 
size. Thus, we have already seen that slope wall paving 
can be divided into strips, 1 ft. wide and 13l^ ft. long, each 
containing a certain fraction of a cubic yard. These strips 
can be so marked that anyone capable of reading figures 
can measure at a glance the daily progress. 



OUST KEEPING. 7 

On macadam roadwork, I have found it desirable to set 
stakes every 20 ft. along the edge of the proposed macadam, 
marking each 100-ft. station, and each intermediate stake 
"With its proper "plus." Thus the 5th hundred-foot stake is 
Station 5. The first 20 ft. stake beyond Sta. 5 is marked 
5 + 20; the next is marked 5 + 40; and so on up to Sta. 6. 
The engineman on the steam roller can enter on a card, at 
night, the station and "plus" to which the broken stone has 
been laid. In the same way sewer trenching and pipe laying 
can be marked, placing the "plus" stakes 10 ft. apart if 
desirable. The object being to relieve the foreman or time- 
keeper of the labor of using a tape to measure up the daily 
progress. 

There are few classes of work more difficult to measure 
daily than brick buildings, and concrete-steel buildings, 
due to the numerous openings and irregularity of forms. In 
concrete-steel building work there are various columns, 
girders, floor arches, etc., each containing amounts of con- 
crete and steel not readily calculated by any ordinary fore- 
man or time-keeper. But it is possible to give each separate 
type of column or girder a letter or a numiber, or a combined 
number and letter, so as to distinguish it from other similar 
columns or girders — of greater or less size. Take the blue 
print of the building, and with a red pencil divide the con- 
crete into units, preferably separating the units where ex- 
pansion joints or other joints occur. Then, for example, 
reserve the numbers up to 100 for the first floor, 101 to 200, 
for the second floor, and so on; marking columns Ci, C2, 
etc., on the first floor; similar columns on the second floor 
being marked Cioi, C102, etc. Having thus divided all the 
concrete work into units, make small blue prints, about 
as large as a postal-card, showing the outlines of each unit 
and its number. The man in charge of a certain part of 
the work Is furnished with the small blue-prints of the 
units he is to build. He is also furnished each day with a 
ruled card on which he enters the number of each kind of 
units built by him, and the number of men and their time 
on each unit. This card is turned in at night, and posted in 
a cost record book by the book-keeper or time-keeper, who 
simply multiplies the number of units by the recorded yard- 
age in each unit. Thus the foreman 'makes no measure- 
ments, or computations, but simply counts the units of work 



8 IIANDBOCK OF CQST DATA. 

done and records them. This unit recording system is the 
secret of the success of several well-known firms. 

On heavy dimension masonry I have applied the unit 
system, in a modified form. The time-keeper, a young en- 
gineering graduate, was required to measure the dimensions 
of each block of stone as soon as it was dressed, and paint 
a distinctive letter and number on an end face. This refer- 
ence mark was entered in a note book opposite the dimen- 
sions of the stone. As fast as the stones were laid in the 
dam each mason in charge of a derrick gang was required 
to mark on a card the letter and num>ber of each sto^ne. 
When this card was turned in at the end of the day, it was 
possible to compute the yardage of cut stone laid by each 
gang by referring to the time-keeper's records giving the 
dimensions. 

In like manner records of heavy timber work 'may be kept 
by marking every stick of timber; and there is no reason 
why this same method can not be applied to structural 
steel work and to a great variety of work where large pieces 
are handled. 

Recording Output by Weighing. — ^Where the materials 
are small and irregular in form, it often happens that the 
most satisfactory method of keeping records of output is by 
weighing each butcketful, car, wagon or skip load. This 
method has long been in use at coal mines where every car 
is numbered, and is weighed before dumping. On contract 
work, such as macadamizing, for example, each wagon load 
may be weighed, if the amount of the work warrants the 
purchase and use of platform scales. It is usually consid- 
ered sufficiently exact, howerer, to measure the size of a 
few loads, and simply count the number of loads. How- 
ever, loads often vary so greatly in size that this method of 
counting loads becomes very unsatisfactory. This holds true 
particularly of loads of quarried stone, of earth loaded by 
steam shovels, and the like. In such cases the contractor 
should seriously consider the advisability of weighing each 
load. 

One of the most diflicult classes of construction work to 
measure daily is rubble masonry. Yet I have found two 
very satisfactory methods of recording the work done by 
each derrick gang. One way is to use wooden skips that 
are loaded at the quarry with stpne, put upon cars 



COST KEEPING. 9 

and transported to the work. Each skip is provided with a 
clip for holding a brass check. The checks are numbered 
serially, and the weight of stone corresponding to each 
number is entered in a book; for before delivery to the 
masonry derricks each skip is lifted by a derrick, placed on 
a scales and weighed. It would be practicable to provide a 
large spring balance for weighing instead of using scales. 
The mason in charge of the derrick gang removes the brass 
check from the skip and keeps it, entering its number on 
a card which is turned over to the time-keeper at night, to- 
gether with the brass checks. Thus it is poissible quickly to 
ascertain the number of tons of rubble laid by each gang. 
Where the job is so small as not to warrant the slight 
extra expense of weighing the stone, a very satisfactory 
method is to require the boss of each derrick gang to record 
the number of skips of mortar used, also the num'ber of 
skips of spalls. No attempt is made to record the amount 
of rubble stones; but this amount can be estimated quite 
accurately if record is kept of the mortar and spalls, for, in 
any particular class of rubble work, the mortar forms quite 
a constant percentage of the m'asonry. However, care should 
be taken to furnish the spalls in skips of uniform size, as 
well as the mortar, for otherwise the boss will be tempted 
to use pure mortar in order to make a good showing in daily 
output of masonry. Mortar is expensive when mixed rich in 
cement, whereas spalls are cheap, even if broken by hand 
especially for the purpose, so that it is desirable to displace 
as much mortar by spalls as possible. Therefore a record 
should be kept of the spalls as well as of the mortar. By 
occasionally measuring up the wall laid, the percentage of 
mortar and spalls to the total wall yardage can be ascer- 
tained, and from this percentage the daily progress of the 
work can be computed. 

Record Cards Attached to Eacli Piece of Work. — In 

doing machine-shop work it Is often necessary to have one 
piece of metal pass through the hands of several different 
workers. For example, one man may drill holes of a certain 
size, another man may drill holes of another size, still 
another man may thread the holes, and so on. In such a 
case it is common practice, where careful cost records are 
kept, to provide a card that is attached to each piece or each 
lot of pieces. In blanks provided on the card, each worker 
enters his number, and the number of hours and minutes 



10 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

spent by him doing a specified kind of work on the piece. 
A modified form of this method is to attach a card or a 
brass check to each piece, giving a serial number and letter 
to the piece. Each workman on the piece notes its number 
on his own record card, and opposite this number he 
enters the amount of time spent on the piece. 

While this 'method of recording output can not be as 
frequently used in engineering contract work as in ma- 
chine shop work, it should not be overlooked by the gen- 
eral contractor. It might well be applied to timberwork 
where one gang of men bores the holes, another gang saws 
and a third gang "daps" or adzes the sticks, and so on. It 
is desirable always to assign different kinds of work to 
different men, not only because the time usually lost in 
changing tools may be saved, but because men become 
more expert when they do one class of work only. The 
record card facilitates the differentiation of labor into 
classes, and is, therefore, a great aid in increasing the out- 
put of a given number of men. 

Record Cards Used With a Conductor's Puircli. — 
Workmen with rough, tough and grimy hands do not take 
kindly to keeping records in writing. I find, therefore, that 
the common "conductor's punch" can be used to good ad- 
vantage in tallying the output of many classes of work. 
By using punches that punch holes of different shapes, it is 
easy to make one card show several different records. In 
Engineering News, Mar. 27, 1902, I first described the use 
of the time record card shown in Fig. 1. This card was 
designed for the purpose of recording the work of each 
team engaged in hauling broken stone. The diamond- 
shaped punch shows that the team started on its first trip 
at 7.05 in the morning, and the cross-shaped punch shows 
that it started on its return trip at 8.20. Each teamster is 
given one of these cards every morning, the number of the 
team, and the date appearing on the card, also the location 
of the work and the length of haul. Two men, one at each 
end of the haul, are provided with conductor's punches of 
different shapes. They are also furnished with cheap 
watches, and :are required to punch the card, to the nearest 
five minutes, at the time the team leaves. If the haul is 
short, a larger card is used so that the nearest minute may 
be punched instead of the nearest five-minute interval. 
These cards serve two yery useful purpO'^es; First, they 



COST KEEPING, 



11 



spur the drivers to do a good day's work, because of the 
knowledge that their work is being recorded; second, they 
enable the foreman or manager to discover where time is 
being unnecessarily lost. For example, I discovered by the 



Team Day 


6 





5 


10 


»5 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


55 


7 




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. 










8 










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9 


























10 


























n 


























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FIG. 1. 

use of these cards that much time was being lost at the rock 
bins, due to the flat slope of the bin bottom and the poor 
design of the bin chute. By a few changes at the bin much 
expensive delay was avoided. On long hauls delay in load- 
ing was unimportant, but on short hauls it was a large per- 
centage of the total team time. The teams were all hired 
teams, and the drivers w^ere not a very active lot of men. 
But the Introduction of the record card increased the daily 
number of loads by 25%, without in the least overworking 
the horses. 

The punch record card can be used to tally the number of 
batches of concrete mixed per day, instead of tallying by 
cutting notches in a stick or marking a piece of paper, as is 
commonly done. Where hand mixing is used it may even 
be well to have the foreman or the boss workman punch the 
nearest minute when the batch is finished; but on machine 
work this might take his attention too frequently so that it 
would be preferable merely to have the dumpman tally the 



12 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

batch, by punching a hole in a card without regard to the 
time. 

'There are innumerable uses to which the punch and the 
record card can be put, and it requires but a little ingenuity 
to devise a card suited to any given purpose. 

Use of a Mimeograph for Printing Record Cards. — 
On small jobs it frequently would not pay to have record 
cards printed; moreover, there is usually delay in getting 
job press-work done. I have found the most satisfactory 
solution of this problem of printing record cards to be the 
use of a device called the "mimeograph," an invention of 
Edison. It consists of a frame for holding a stretched 
sheet of paraffined paper which may be laid upon a block 
of steel that has been cross-ruled with, very fine lines. A 
''stylus," or pen, having a blunt steel point, is used for 
writing or lettering. The stylus is pressed rather hard 
upon the paraffined paper, and the little sharp teeth of the 
steel block cut fine points through the paper wherever the 
stylus comes in contact with the paper. Having written or 
printed as much as is desirable;, or as the sheet of paper 
will hold, the steel block is removed and for it is substi- 
tuted a card (or paper) that is to receive the printed words. 
A small roller, inked with printer's ink, is then run lightly 
over the paraffined paper. The ink passes through the 
small holes and thus prints the letters on the card below. 
Then another card is substituted and the rolling process is 
repeated, and so on until as many dozens or as. many 
thousands of cards are printed as are desired. After the 
paraffined paper has once been lettered, the work of print- 
ing cards can be done almost as fast as with a hand print- 
ing press, and the results are excellent. 

A later development of the mimeograph consists of a 
cylinder or drum, and an automatic inking device, so that 
the cards or sheets to be printed can be run through at a 
remarkably fast rate. An ordinary type-writer is used to 
letter the parafflne paper, instead of using the steel stylus 
above described. Very neat work is thus produced with 
great rapidity. 

A mimeograph can be purchased through any dealer in 
stationery, and at a very moderate price. 

Automatic Time Stamps, — A machine often used in 
large machine shops is an automatic time stamp. For con- 
tractors' use the type of stamp manufactured by the 



COST KEEPING. 13 

Perry Time Stamp Co., Chicago, 111., is very satisfactory. 
The clock automatically regulates the stamp so that it 
records the year, the day of the month, the hour, and 
the nearest minute. The operator simply inserts a 
card and presses down on the stamp, and a full 
time record is printed on the card. Such a machine 
might well be used for recording the output of every batch 
of a concrete mixer, every train load of material, etc. Thus 
accurate record could be kept of the cause of delays, as well 
as the length of time required to make a trip. A boy can 
operate the machine without a possibility of error as to the 
exact time. 

At all large factories a time clock is used to register the 
time of arrival of each workman. There are many classes 
of contract work where the time clock can also be used to 
advantage. 

Time Cards and Time Books. — Through any stationery 
store time books can be bought that are ruled and lettered 
to suit most classes of contract work. The time-keeper en- 
ters the name of each man and assigns him a number in 
the book. On large jobs it is wise also to provide a brass 
check that can be pinned to the clothing of each workman, 
so that his number is visible at a glance. The home ad- 
dresses of common laborers are seldom entered in the time 
books, but I have found it desirable always to record home 
addresses of all men, and particularly the permanent ad- 
dresses of skilled workmen and foremen. A few postal 
cards will thus enable one quickly to gather together a gang 
of skilled men for a new job. It is wise also to have a 
directory book for entering the names of good foremen, 
whether they be men that you have employed or not; and a 
few brief remarks concerning each man's fitness for par- 
ticular classes of work should be entered. This assists also 
in identifying men whose names have slipped the memory. 

Time books are very often ruled so that the job the men 
are working on cannot be entered opposite each man's 
name. It is necessary then to reserve separate pages for 
each job. Then if a man does several different kinds of 
work on one job, as many different lines are reserved 
under his name so that the hours and fractions spent by 
him on each kind of work can be recorded. In that case 
the foreman is provided with a time-book from which the 
time-keeper makes abstracts when he goes the rounds. A 



14 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

more satisfactory -way is to provide the foreman with cards 
on which are printed or mimeographed the different kinds 
of work, and on each card is marked the number assigned 
to each workman, and the time spent by him on each class 
of work. Such a card for rpadwork is shown in Fig. 2. 



MAN NO. 


CONTEACT NO. 




Date, 


Foreman, 




Spreading Stones, 


hours. Station 


to Station 


Trimming Slopes, " " " 


Digging Ditches, 


» 


" 


Grading Koad, 







FIG. 2. 

It Will be noted that the exact location of the workman on 
each class of work is given by entering the numbers of 
the Station stakes between which his work is going on. 
Such cards are far more satisfactory than any time books 
when it comes to an office summarizing of the work done. 
Moreover, the loss of a time-book might completely destroy 
the value of a set of records. 

Another form of time card (one that is used by the 
Aberthaw Construction Co., of Boston) is shown in Fig. 3. 
The name or number of each workman is entered in the 
first column. On the back side of the card the spaces for 
names, etc., are continued so that 27 names can be entered 
on the two faces of the card. The time in hours spent by 
each workman on each class of work is entered in hours 



COST KEEPING. 



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CO^T KEEPIKG. 1? 

and fractions. Certain ''index" letters, or key letters, are 
used to designate each class of work; B, for example, may 
indicate a concrete base, and P may indicate a concrete 
post; E may indicate a certain kind of excavation; and so 
on. This makes a compact card adapted to a great many 
uses. After visiting work being done by the Aberthaw 
Construction Co., and noting the splendid output of their 
workmen, I have been more than ever convinced that **sys- 
tem pays," even if it costs a little more for bookkeeping. 

In order to avoid disputes on pay day, I devised the form 
of card shown in Fig. 4. Each workman is provided with 
one of these cards which he keeps until pay day. This card 
was devised for work on which pay day came every second 
week. The rate of wages is punched with a conductor's 
punch, likewise the number of hours and the nearest half 
hour for each day. The time-keeper or foreman punches 
every man's card at the end of the day, and at the same 
time enters the number of the man and his hours in the 
tim'e-book. If any dispute arises as to the number of hours 
worked the dispute must be settled then land there, for on 
pay day no claims for extra time will be listened to. This 
does away entirely with pay day disputes, which is a very 
satisfactory feature. The card also serves to check the 
time-keeper's records. Moreover, it makes "padding" of 
payrolls more difficult, and facilitates detective work if 
''padding" is suspected. The card also serves as a discharge 
slip; for, when a man is discharged, the foreman punches 
the hours that he has worked and he also punches a hole 
through the word "discharged." When the man presents 
the card at the office he is paid; the card is kept as a 
voucher, and a hole is punched through the word "paid." 

Cards for Recording Materials Received. — ^^The card 
system has been successfully used for recording the dis- 
tribution of materials and supplies used on a job. Fig. 5 
shows a card used for steam shovel work in rock. All 
materials sent from the store house to any particular ma- 
chine or place are recorded on the card. 

Figure 6 shows another form of card, one of which is is- 
sued daily to each foreman in charge of concrete work. The 
number of barrels or bags of cement and the brand, the 
number of loads of sand, etc., the number of pounds of 
crushed stone, the number of feet of lumber, the numher of 
bars of steel and the size of the bars, etc., are all recorded 



18 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



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COST EEEPINa. 



19 




20 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

on the front face of the card. On the rear face of the card 
a similar entry is made of all material sent from the job or 
left unused at nig-ht. This gives a check on the amount of 
materials used in the work. Each class of contract 
work requires a differently printed card, and a little ex- 
perience is needed to show what form of card is particu- 
larly adapted to the work. Perhaps enough has been said 
to indicate the possibilities and the simplicity of the card 
record system. 

Use of Slide Rules and Wage Multiplying Tables. — 

The office work of computing the cost of work may be 
greatly reduced by the use of a slide rule. Almost as fast 
as one man can read off the number of hours worked by 
each laborer and his rate of wages, an assistant can per- 
form the multiplication with a slide rule. The results will 
be close enough for all practical purposes. 

For computing pay-day wages, a multiplication table, 
giving the product of any given number of hours by any 
given rate of wages, may be prepared. The ordinary small 
tables published in the back of time-books are seldom com- 
prehenslve enough for general use. Having comiputed the 
wages for each man by the aid of a table, it is well to check 
the computation with a slide rule. 

Recording Work by Minute Hand Observations. — It 
has often been said that short time observations prove 
nothing as to the efficiency of men or machines. This 
statement has been exceedingly misleading to those who 
have accepted it as a self-evident truth. When a short time 
observation does not include the common delays incident 
to shifting tools, to breakdowns, and the like, it may lead 
to a serious underestimate of the cost of work. On the 
other hand, when the so-called short time observation is 
made long enough to include the time spent in necessary 
rests, in moving machines, in repairs to plant, and the 
like, exceedingly valuable results may be obtained. When 
it is desired to find whether men are lazy, whether a fore- 
man knows his business, whether the method of doing the 
work can be bettered, or whether the tool or machine is 
susceptible of improvement, there is no method to be com- 
pared with the method of timing work with the minute hand 
of a watch. Moreover, where it is desired to discover the 
effect on cost of varying the length of haul, of varying the 
kind of rock drilled, and the like, timing with the minute 



COST KEEPING. 21 

hand is the only satisfactory way of arriving at definite 
conclusions. 

In my book on *'Rock Excavation" I have shown how 
such timing h'as enabled me to lower the cost of rock drill- 
ing, and to predict the cost of drilling in any given kind of 
rock under given conditions. In an editorial article in En- 
gineering News, July 2, 1903, I have shown how minute- 
hand timing may be used to increase the number of piles 
driven daily by a pile driver. I have also shown, in the 
same article, that there is no economy in using a steam 
hammer on railroad trestle piling, because so little of the 
time is spent in actual hammering of the pile. In my book 
on "Earthwork and Its Oost" I have given rules for esti- 
mating the cost of earthwork, based upon numerous min- 
ute-hand observations, and checked by comparison with 
records of cost extending over months of work. 

In a lecture* to the students of engineering at Columbia 
University I gave some suggestions on minute-hand timing 
that may be quoted with propriety: 

"I would impress upon you that you should not wait un- 
til you are in responsible charge of work before you begin 
gathering cost statistics. Many of you will find yourselves 
before long in the position of inspector on some engineering 
work of magnitude, and the very magnitude of the work 
will probably discourage you in your determination to learn 
something about costs by your own observation. Let me 
assure you that you need not be in the least discouraged, 
that in fact you will probably be in a better position to 
acquire the most valuable kind of data than is the chief en- 
gineer himself. He, to be sure, will learn in a general way 
what each of the classes of work costs; but you, if you avail 
yourself of your opportunity, will learn in detail what cer- 
tain parts of the work cost. I would sooner know every 
detail of the cost of a given kind of work on the New York 
Subway, for example, than to know in a general way what 
all the items cost, and let me explain to you why. Sup- 
pose that you determine to learn the cost of rock excava- 
tion where cableways are used to handle the excavated 
rock. You start by studying the cost of handling the rock 
with the cableway, and with your watch in hand, you note 
that at 9 : 15 : 10 (reading the hour, the minute and the 



^Printed in The School ot Mines (Columbia) Quarterly, July, 
1904. 



22 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

second hand) the bucket begins to rise from the pit; at 
9 : 15 : 20 it is out of the pit and begins its travel along 
the cable; at 9 : 15 : 40 it has reached the dump; at 
9 : 15 : 55 it has dumped; and so on until it has made the 
round trip. Thus you time in detail a large numiber of 
round trips until you have a fair average for each element. 
You measure the lift and the distance of travel, and you 
note the kind and size of engine used; and when the plant 
is shifted fro'm one place to the next you ascertain the lost 
time and the cost of shifting. What, you may ask, is the 
use of going so minutely into details? The answer is sim- 
ply this, that you may be able to predict the cost of future 
work where some of the details differ, as tor example the 
lift, or the length of the haul, or the number of times the 
plant must be shifted for a given yardage of excavation. 
Without such detailed data you will be unable tO' predict ac- 
curately but will have to guess. It is just this kind of detailed 
information that the chief engineer very likely will not get, 
so that, in fact, with all his seeming advantage he may not 
be able to predict the cost of similar work, where condi- 
tions vary somewhat, with as great accuracy as you can. 
Indeed I venture to say that on one job, thoroughly studied 
in detail, it is possible for a young engineer to learn more 
about actual costs than the majority of engineers learn in 
a lifetime." 

Having secured minute-hand records of the number of 
feet drilled in a given time by a rock drill, for example, the 
observer should check his estimate by talking with the 
drillers, the foreman, the contractor and the engineers. He 
will soon* discover that these men often have but the 
vaguest idea of the time lost in changing bits, shifting ma- 
chines, delays at blasting, etc., although they can give a 
reliable estimate of the average day's work of a machine. 
In a word, he will learn that these men, who think they 
know their business, are exceedingly ignorant of the essen- 
tial details upon which profit or loss depends. 

The most elaborate system of time records and book- 
keeping cannot show what minute-hand recording will 
show. By this I do not mean to decry bookkeeping, but to 
make it evident that bookkeeping is only a part of a per- 
fect system of cost recording. An essential part of the ideal 
system that I have in mind would be the frequent examina- 
tion of every item of labor cost by means of a trained ob- 



CO^T KEEPING. 23 

server e^tlipped With a watch. If a §top-watch is not avail- 
able an ordinary watch with a second hand will serve, and 
in many classes of work even the second hand can be dis- 
pensed with. An example will now be given to illustrate 
the m'ethod and value of a short time observation. 

Before beginning the record, set the minute hand so that 
it points an even minute when the second hand points at 
60. Suppose it is desired to time the drilling of a hole in 
a seamy mica-schist, using a steam, drill mounted on a 
tripod. At 9:37 A. M. the driller is set up and ready to be- 
gin drilling a hole and exactly 30 seconds later he turns on • 
the steam: then we begin our record: 



9.37.30 


Start. 


9.49.20 


Down. 


9.51.20 


Start. 


10.00.40 


Down. 


10.03.40 


Start. 


10.09.40 


Down. 


10.13.00 


Start. 


10.14.40 


Bit sticks. 


10.24.40 


After hammering the drill repeatedly, the driller is 




directed to break up some cast iron and throw 




it into the drill hole. 


10.32.30 


Drilling begins again. 


10.45.00 


Hole finished. 


11.15.10 


New hole started. 



It will be seen that drilling started at 9.37.30, and that at 
9.49.20 the full length of the feed screw was out, and that 
to drill farther a new bit had to be inserted. At 9.51.20 the 
new bit was in and drilling began again, after a delay of 
2 mins. in changing bits. At 10.00.40 the second bit was 
down. Each successive bit, it should be stated, is usually 
2 ft. longer than its predecessor. At 10.14.40 the bit sticks 
in the hole due to having run into a pocket of rotten rock. 
The observer might readily have predicted this sticking by 
noting the increased rapidity of penetration; for it took 
nearly 12 mins. to drill the first 2 ft. of the hole, and only 6 
mins. to drill the 2 ft. just prior to the sticking. After 
wasting 10 mins. abusing the drill the driller finally re- 
moved the bit (at the direction of the observer), broke up 
a piece of cast iron pipe into hazel nut sizes, and threw 
two handfuls of the iron into the bottom of the hole. Drill- 



24 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

ing was resumed at 10.32.30, and the last 2 ft. were com- 
pleted at 10.45.00. At 11.15.10 the driller started another 
hole, having spent more than 30 mins. shifting the tripod 
and drill. 

What do we learn from this ohservation, assuming it to 
be a fair average. First that the driller was slow in 
changing bits; seicond, that ihe was very slow in shifting his 
tripod; third, that the driller was ignorant; fourth, that 
the foreman was equally so; fifth, that fragments of cast 
iron completely overcome sticking of bits in this rock. 

We know that the driller was slow, because other similar 
observations have proved it possible to change short bits 
in much less time than 3 mins., and, since the driller has 
an easy time of it while turning the crank, he can work 
rapidly without exhausting himself when it comes to chang- 
ing bits or shifting the machine. We know that both driller 
and foreman were ignorant, for broken iron should have 
been provided ready to use in case of sticking of the bit. 
We conclude that it will pay to assign a 'man to measure 
up the footage of hole drilled by each driller every day, 
and to offer each driller a bonus for every foot of hole 
drilled in excess of a stipulated minimum. 

The foregoing is a record of fact and not of theory. On 
a large contract job the author secured an increase of 45% 
in the daily footage of each drill by taking just such obser- 
vations as the above. 

Labor unions often prevent the adoption of the best plan 
for increasing output, but they can not prevent a manager 
from knowing where the losses are occurring. There is no 
excuse, therefore, for failure to study machine work in the 
manner above outlined. 

I have found it of great advantage to time in detail the 
work of cableways, derricks, steam shovels, concrete mix- 
ers, dinkey locomotives, pile drivers and other machines 
used on contract work. Even the output of men working 
with hand tools can be profitably studied in the same way. 
I have timed the number of shovelfuls of earth handled un- 
der different conditions with a view to ascertaining the 
effect of changed conditions, and the effect of using larger 
shovels. However, the greatest gains from minute-hand 
timing occur when it is applied to machines operated by 
power rather than to hand work. 

It is desirable in all cases not to let the workmen know 



PREPARING BIDS, 25 

that they are being timed. When men are working in the 
open air, an observer can often use the telescope of a tran- 
sit or a pair of field glasses to good advantage. In shop 
work, or underground, where the observer must be near the 
men, a convenient way of timing any detail of work is by 
counting. One can soon learn to count with regularity, and 
thus dispense with a second or minute hand. Other meth- 
ods 01 ascertaining the time of doing work without being 
observed will occur to any who gives thought to the 
matter. 

Cost records of daily output, when properly analyzed, are 
of great value; but let no m^anager of men and machines 
neglect to have itemized short time records taken at fre- 
quent intervals. 

How to Prepare Estimates and Bids. — In estimating 
a unit price for any kind of work, contractors often place 
too much reliance on published prices for similar work. 
There are seven serious sources of error in so doing: (1) 
The conditions vary greatly in places but a few miles 
apart; (2) rates of wages also vary widely, being, for ex- 
ample, higher in large cities than in small cities or in the 
country; (3) specifications and the interpretations of iden- 
tical specification clauses by different engineers vary great- 
ly; (4) contractors inexperienced in the particular work in 
question often bid prices altogether too low; (5) the bid- 
ding prices may be purposely unbalanced, being too high 
on certain items and too low on others; (6) a unit price that 
is fair for a large job is generally too low for a small job; 
(7) a contractor already equipped with a plant can often 
afford to bid lower than the contractors not so equipped. 

While previous bidding prices should be used as a guide, 
they should never be relied upon implicitly if the work is 
of any considerable magnitude. Each item should be esti- 
mated in detail, and this estimating should be done system- 
atically to avoid some serious omission. The cost of any 
item of work may be divided into five parts: 

1. Development expense. 

2. Plant expense and supplies. 

3. Materials. 

4. Labor. 

5. Superintendence and general expense. 

Development expense includes the cost of making roads. 



26 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

delivering and installing the plant, draining the site of the 
work, salaries of foremen and others on the idle list pend- 
ing the beginning of work, and all expenses involved in 
getting ready to build the structure. On small jobs this 
item of development expense is often a very large percent- 
age of the total cost; and on large jobs it seldom can be 
neglected In estimating probiable unit costs. 

Develo'pmient expense has to be estimated for each par- 
ticular job, by securing freight rates or estimates for 
carting, etc. In som'e cases it includes temporary road build- 
ing, installing pipes for water supply, etc. 

Plant expense includes interest and depreciation on all 
tools, machines, buildings, stored materials, trestles, false- 
work; also ithe cost of miaintaining the plant during its 
operation, new parts, fuel, oil, etc. 

Materials include only such materials as actually go into 
the finished structure, and the wastage of materials due to 
breakage in handling or sawing and shaping. The cost 
of materials includes freight and hauling to the site of 
work. 

Labor includes all skilled and common labor, except fore- 
men, clerks and office men. 

Superintendence and general expense includes foremen, 
managers, timekeepers, watchmen, bookkeepers, supply 
clerks, rents, taxes, traveling and entertaining expenses, 
stationery, etc. 

To the experienced contractor an enumeration of these 
items may seem unnecessary, but it is indeed surprising to 
see how often inexperienced contractors err through fail- 
ure to consider all of these items. Engineers, and not al- 
ways young engineers, are prone to omit development land 
plant expense, either in whole or in part, from their esti- 
mates of cost. 

Plant Expense; Interest and Depreciation. — Plant 
expense is commonly underes'tim-ated. First it is neces- 
sary to consider the time limit allowed for the work. Then 
a plant must be figured upon that will perform the work 
at least 20% within the time limit, making also liberal al- 
lowances for bad weather delays, as well as for delays in 
delivering and installing the plant, and delays due to 
breakdowns. Use with great caution the figures of output 
given in most catalogs; they are almost invariably based 
upon ideal conditions, and not infrequently are wholly de- 



PREPARING BIDS. 27 

ceptive. Even where the output of a machine is correctly- 
stated, remember that such an output may not be possible 
in your case, due to inability to get materials to the ma- 
chine or away from it. Consider always the limiting factor. 
A derrick, for example, may be able to handle 200 cu. yds. 
a day, but if it serves a few men working in a confined 
space, its actual output may not be 30 cu. yds. Time and 
again this self-evident fact has not been evident to the in- 
experienced man. 

To give another example, suppose the work is rock ex- 
cavation. Do not guess at the number of rock-drills re- 
quired; but estimate the probable spacing of the drill holes 
in the given kind of rock, and from this calculate the num- 
ber of cubic yards of rock each drill will break daily on a 
basis of, say, 50 ft. of hole drilled per machine per shift. 
Knowing the time limit, compute the number of drills re- 
quired; and, knowing the number of drills, compute the 
boiler power required. Guess at nothing. If you have no 
other data, secure, by letter, some estimates 'of output 
from the large and old manufacturing firms, whose esti- 
mates are frequently very close to the truth. 

Having liberally estimated the size and kind of plant re- 
quired, and having secured quotations on the plant, charge 
the full cost of the plant up to the job to be done, and de- 
termine how many cents per yard, or per other units in- 
volved, are thus chargeable to first cost of plant. This will 
give a maximum charge, and it is well to know the worst. 
But if the full cost of a plant is charged to a small job, 
some other contractor will probably get the work. Go, 
therefore, to a dealer in second-hand machinery, and ask 
him to name a fair price on a second-hand plant such as 
yours will be when you are through with it. If you can 
secure a tentative bid on the machinery, you will have a 
fairly reliable estimate of its salvage value. In most cases 
you can form some estimate of the salvage value, by find- 
ing what second-hand plants are selling for. If you are 
still afraid that your charge for depreciation will be so 
high as to lose the job, there is left just one safe way of es- 
timating, namely to secure a rental quotation. There are 
many firms who make a business of renting contracting 
plants, and such a plant as is wanted can usually be rented 
for a daily or monthy price that includes ordinary wear and 
tear. The longer the plant is tO' be used the lower the 



28 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

daily rate of rent, therefore be careful to secure a sliding 
scale lease. A hoisting engine and boiler may be rented for, 
say, $2 a day, if the period is to be 30 days; but, for each 
added 30 days, there should be a reduction in the rate, down 
to, say, $1, beyond which no further reduction is given. The 
reason why such a sliding scale can be secured is briefly 
this: 

The season for contract work is usually limited; road 
work, for example, is limited to the summer and fall 
months. Most of the contracts are awarded at an early 
date, so that if a plant remains unrented well into the sea- 
son, the chance of renting it falls off rapidly. Periods of 
idleness between times of rental soon cut down the net in- 
come from a plant, yet interest on the investment goes on 
uninterruptedly. If these periods of idleness can be re- 
duced the owner of a plant can afford to accept a lower per 
diem rate of rental, yet be a gainer at the end of the year. 

Then, too, there are some seasons when contractors and 
their plants are abundant, and work is scarce. The rev- 
enues from such plants are then correspondingly small. 

I have found that a roadmaking plant does not average 
100 days actually worked per year. A 10-ton steam roller 
costs, say, $2,500; and, if interest is charged at 6% per an- 
num, we have $150 to be distributed over 100 days — not over 
365 days, as many engineers have done. 

Depreciation, of course, does not go on as rapidly when a 
plant is idle as when working, provided the plant is prop- 
erly housed and cared for; but the housing and the care 
cost money. Moreover, many kinds of machines become 
obsolete in a few years, so that depreciation cannot be said 
wholly to cease while the plant is idle. All the annual de- 
preciation and all the cost of housing and caring for the 
plant should be distributed over the average number of 
days actually worked. If, on a 10-ton steam roller, the 
annual depreciation is $200, we have $200 -i- 100, or $2 per 
day worked; and if we add to this the $1.50 per day charged 
to interest, we have a total of $3.50 per day worked. Now, 
such a charge should be made by the icontractor even 
where he uses his own roller; indeed, he may be justified 
5n making a greater charge, for, if he does not have the 
$2,500 invested in the roller, his working capital is so in- 
creased that he may take a larger contract. 

It may be asked why the interest and depreciation are 



piiEPAuma BIDS. 2» 

distributed over the days actually worked. The answer is 
that the output of the plant is usually estimated as so and 
so miany unite per day, and that, in consequence, all costs 
should be reduced to the same basis. 

For years the most absurdly low estimates of plant ex- 
pense have been made by engineers, because of the lack of a 
business training in so many of our engineering colleges. 

When operating a plant the item of current repairs can- 
not always be separated from depreciation. Perhaps it is 
best to consider the replacing of all parts that wear out 
rapidly as being current repairs. Then only the heavier 
and more expensive parts may be said to depreciate. 

Of course depreciation is a variable item, even in the 
parts of the same machine. A dredge hull may have a life 
of 20 years, while the bucket of the dredge may not last 2 
years. Where the depreciation is due mostly to rust or de- 
cay the depreciation is best expressed in percentage per an- 
num; but where the depreciation is due mostly to wear the 
depreciation should also be expressed in terms of the work 
done. A cableway, fo*r example, may last 2 years if it 
handles only 25,000 skip loads per year; but if 100,000 loads 
are handled in a year, two cables will be worn out. De- 
preciation, when stated in percentages per annum, must be 
used with caution. 

Cost of Fuel for Engines. — I find it convenient to esti- 
mate the amount of coal for hoisting engines, and the like, 
as follows: Allow one-third of a ton of coal for each ten 
horse-power per ten-hour shift. This rule holds good for 
most of the engines, up to 80 HP., used by contractors. 

Cost of Superintendence and General Expense. — ^The 
cost of foremanship on contract work seldom exceeds 15% of 
the cost of labor, and it seldom runs much below 5%. If 
one must guess, perhaps 10% is a fair average. These per- 
centages include the salaries of foremen only. The sal- 
aries of general superintendents and office men, and all of- 
fice expenses are preferably called "general expenses" or 
**fixed expenses." General expenses seldom amount to less 
than 4%, and on small, intermittent job work they may run 
much higher. 

Percentage to Allow for Contingencies. — After esti- 
mating the probable cost of every item of work as closely 
as possible, including superin'tendence and general ex- 
penses, a percentage should be added for contingencies. A 



so HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

very common allowance is 10%; but no such rough guessing 
is indulged in by either a careful engineer or by an experi- 
enced contractor. 

Contingencies is an item used to insure against oversights 
and ignorance. On work where sub-contracts can be let at 
once for the materials, there is practically no risk taken 
on materials, hence there is no justification, on the part of 
the contractor, in making an allowance to cover contingen- 
cies on materials. The engineer who designs a structure 
may be justified in making such an allowance to cover pos- 
sible bills for "extras," but not otherwise. On the other 
hand, it is often wise to make an allowance to cover pos- 
sible inefficiency of laborers, or possible strikes, or possible 
rise in rates of wages; for, after estimating the average cost 
of labor on a given structure, there is always some risk of 
exceeding the average, for some unforeseeable reason. On 
large jobs both the desiigning engineer and the contractor 
are justified in adding from 5 to 20% to estim-ated labor costs 
to cover contingencies. If the price of materials has been 
steadily rising, then a study should be made of price curves 
extending over several years in order that some rational al- 
lowance may be made for the probable rise in prices of ma- 
terials before they can be sub-contracted for. If, on the 
other hand, prices are on the downward curve, a contractor 
may feel justified in bidding lov/er than he otherwise would. 
The best way to arrive at an allowance for contingencies 
is to keep a full record of the estimated cost of each item 
of work, and subsequently compare it with the actual cost. 
In this way it will be found that there is seldom a job on 
which every item of cost can be accurately predicted. 

Percentage to Allow for Profits. — In a number of edi- 
torial articles in Engineering News, I have discussed this 
subject at length. The common method of adding uniform- 
ly 10 or 15% for profits is open to serious objections, among 
which are the following: (1) The percentage to add for 
profits on materials should usually be less than the per- 
centage to add for profits on labor, particularly when 
profits and contingencies are lumped together; (2) The 
time element and the size of the job should always be fac- 
tors in considering profits, for profits are, strictly speaking, 
the salaries of the contractors; (3) The number of dollars* 
worth of contract work that can be secured and handled 
each average year must be considered, for the reason just 



PREPARING BIDS, 31 

given; (4) The percentage for profits is often made to in- 
clude interest on plant and on cash capital invested, and, if 
so, there is added reason for not using a uniform percentage 
like 15%. 

That there is need of calling attention to these elementary- 
principles is apparent when one notes erroneous statements 
found in many text-books. 

On materials, such as brick, timber and steel, that can 
be bought by sub-contract immediately after the award of 
the main contract, one may estimate a low profit, say, 10 
or 15%; but on labor the profit should usually range from 
15 to 25%, or even higher if contingencies are included in 
the percentage allowed for profits. 

On contract work that can be done only during a few 
months of the year, and especially on work requiring a 
large investment in plant, such for example as macadam 
road work, the percentage of profits must usually be above 
the average of the percentage on work that extends over a 
longer period. If engineers fully realized the importance 
of this fact they would be at more pains to award all high- 
way contracts early in the spring of the year, so that a 
longer season would be available than is now the case. 

List Prices and Discounts. — ^^The prices of machines 
and materials printed in catalogs are usually subject to dis- 
count. On some standard materials, like vitrified pipe, the 
discount is often so large as to make the list prices of no 
value at all in preparing an estimate, unless the estimator 
knows approximately what the discount is. 

Discounts are often quoted thus: 80% and 10%, or "eighty 
and ten." This does not mean that the discount is 90%, but 
that 80% is first to be deducted and then 10% is to be 
deducted from the discounted price. Thus, if the list price 
is 80 cts., deducting 80% makes the discounted price 16 cts. 
Then deducting 10% from 16 cts. leaves the net price of 
14.4 cts. 

In considering the purchase of a machine, always con- 
sider the net prices of the parts that must be renewed most 
frequently. A machine cheap in first cost is often dear in 
maintenance, due to the high prices charged for renewal 
parts. 

Insurance of Workmen. — ^There are a number of cas- 
ualty companies that make a business of insuring a con- 
tractor against accidents to workmen and against accidents 



32 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

to the public. The following extract from my lecture to the 
students of engineering at Columbia University in 1903, 
bears upon this point: 

*1 learned by this accident two things: (1) Never to omit 
an allowance for accidents and other unforeseen contin- 
gencies; (2) never to neglect to insure the workmen. I 
shall digress to say a word about insuring laborers. Up to 
that time, I had supposed that if laborers were to be in- 
sured, it could of course be done by taking out a separate 
accident policy for each man — quite an expensive procedure 
as you doubtless know. After the accident I learned upon 
looking into the matter that a blanket policy covering all 
the men can be taken out, and that the premium is a given 
percentage of the pay roll; thus on earthwork you may in- 
sure all your men for less than 1% of the pay roll. This in- 
surance does not give to each man a weekly stipend in case 
of accident, or to his heirs a designated sum in case of 
death. What the insurance company does do is to protect 
the contractor by assuming all liabilities from claims made 
by injured workmen or their heirs. The insurance com- 
pany limits its liability, however, so that in case a number 
of men are killed by one accident, the contractor may have 
to stand part of the damages. No matter how safe the work 
seems to be, a contractor should never neglect to take out a 
pay roll insurance policy. Many a contractor, just starting 
in business, has been ruined through failure to insure 
against accident." 

A Schedule of Items o£ Cost. — In preparing an estimate 
of unit cost there is always danger of omitting some im- 
portant item. To avoid such an omission I find it desirable 
to compare my estimates with a schedule of items, such as 
follows: 

1. Cost of temporary roadways. 

2. Cost of right of way through farms, etc. 

3. Cost of clearing and grubbing the site. 

4. Cost of snow removal and draining the site. 

5. Cost of the site. 

6. Cost of sheds, barns, offices, etc. 

7. First cost of tools and plant. 

8. Cost of delivering and installing plant. 

9. Cost of supplies, including explosives, water, fuel, oil 

and current repairs. 

10. Plant, interest and depreciation. 



PREPARING BIDS. 33 

11. Cost of trestles, falsework, bracing, forms and tem- 

porary supports. 

12. Quarry rent, sand pit rent, timber stumpage, etc. 

13. Cost of materials f. o. b. for a unit of the structure, 
including wastage. 

14. Freight on materials. 

15. Cost of unloading, hauling and storing of materials. 

16. Cost of delivery and re-handling materials until at 
the place to be used. 

17. Labor of handling, shaping and placing materials. 

18. Foremen's salaries. 

19. 'Salaries of watchmen, timekeepers, clerks, book- 
keepers, etc. 

20. Office and traveling expenses. 

21. Interest on cash capital (plant not included). 

22. Taxes, licenses and insurance of property. 

23. Insurance of workmen and the public against accident. 

24. Premium paid to bondsmen or surety company for 
bond reciuired. 

25. Advertising, legal expense, charity. 

26. Discount on warrants, notes or other paper payments 
for work done. 

27. Percentage added to materials and percentage added 
to labor, to cover contingencies. 

28. Percentage added for profits. 

Unbalanced Bids. — ^A bid is said to be unbalanced when 
too high a price is purposely bid upon one or more items, 
accompanied by an offsetting low price on one or more of 
the remaining Items. Thus, If a fair bidding price for earth 
excavation Is 25 cts. per cu. yd., and for rock, $1.00 per cu. 
yd., the following forms an example of a bid that is bal- 
anced, and one that is unbalanced: 

Balanced Bid. 

1,000 cu. yds. rock, at $1.00 $1,000 

20,000 '* " earth, at $0.25 5,000 

Total $6,000 

Unbalanced Bid. 

1,000 cu. yds. rock, at $2.00 $2,000 

20,000 " " earth, at $0.20 4,000 



Total $6,000 



34 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

It will be seen that the total bid, $6,000, is the same in 
both cases. In the second case, however, the $2 bid on rock 
is altogether too high, and the 20-ct. bid on earth is too low, 
hence the bid is unbalanced. The objects of unbalancing 
bids are three: (1) To secure an abnormally high profit on 
any item the yardage (or quantity) of which is likely to be 
increased after the contract has been awarded; (2) To se- 
cure a large profit on the items of work that imust be done 
first, thus skimming the cream of the contract in the very 
beginning; (3) to conceal from engineers and from competi- 
tors what each item of work is actually worth. 

To prevent the unbalancing of bids, engineers resort to 
various expedients, among which are the following: (1) 
Insertion of a clause in the "invitation to bidders" warning 
them that an unbalanced bid will cause the rejection of the 
bid; (2) requiring a lump-sum bid on the work; (3) publish- 
ing the engineer's S'chedule of items and an estimated price 
for each item, then requiring either (a) that each contractor 
shall bid a uniform percentage on all the items, or (b) that 
the contractor shall bid his own price on each item^ no 
unit price being in excess of a certain percentage of the en- 
gineer's estimated unit price. The first of these two meth- 
ods is called the * 'percentage method of bidding." I have 
discussed the advantages and disadvantages of each of these 
methods in the editorial columns of Engineering News 
(1903-1905). 

A fourth method of preventing unbalancing of bids on 
small items likely to be increased in quantity may be sug- 
gested. It would consist in naming a definite unit price 
that will ibe paid on each of the minor items, and leaving 
the contractor free to bid his own prices on the other items. 

The greatest danger from an unbalanced bid lies in sub- 
sequent change of quantities. Suppose that in the above 
given example, actual work discloses that a far greater 
quantity of rock exists than the 1,000 cu. yds. given in the 
bidding sheet. Suppose the actual quantities in the final 
estimate are reversed, and that there are 20,000 cu. yds. of 
rock and 1,000 cu. yds. of earth. We then have these re- 
sults: 

Balanced Bid. 

20,000 cu. yds. rock, at $1.00 $20,000 

1,000 '* '' earth at $0.25 250 

Total .$20,250 



PREPARING BIDS, 35 

Unbalanced Bid. 

20,000 cu. yds. rock, at $2.00 $40,000 

1,000 " " earth, at $0.20 200 

Total $40,200 

We see that if the unbalanced bid is accepted the work 
costs in the end almost twice as much as it would have cost 
had the balanced bid been accepted; yet the two bids were 
the same ($6,000), according to the preliminary estimate. 

It rarely happens that such an extreme case as this occurs 
in practice, although I have known several quite as bad. 
The principle, however, is best illustrated by an extreme 
example. 

It is common practice among paving contractors in many 
cities to unbalance their bids for the sake of concealing 
their estimates of actual worth; as, for example, among 
asphalt paving companies. Bidding prices must, therefore, 
be looked upon with suspicion always, especially wnen 
used as guides for estimating. 

An unbalanced hid is a two-edged sword. It may actu- 
ally ruin the contractor that makes it, if it happens that he 
has erred and that the quantities on which he has bid too 
low are greatly increased, without a corresponding increase 
in the quantities on which he has bid high. Like all tricky 
practices, it is a dangerous one. 

Causes of Underestimates. — Eingineers have been said 
to be men who can be relied upon in every respect save one 
—ability to predict the cost of work. The reasons why 
engineers' estimates are so often unreliable may be enum- 
erated as follows: 

1. Students of engineering are seldom trained in the art 
of cost estimating, but left to acquire that art haphazard 
after graduation. 

2. Articles descriptive of engineering structures seldom 
contain an analysis of the unit costs. 

3. A subsurface survey is frequently not made; and, as a 
consequence, unexpected materials are encountered in ex- 
cavating. 

4. A study of the sources of local materials, their suita- 
bility for the work, and their unit cost delivered, is often 
not made; and, as a result, specifications are frequently 



36 EAl^DBOOK OF COST DATA. 

drawn that cannot be lived up to except by importing mate- 
rials at great expense. 

5. The cost of clearing, and draining the work is often 
underestimated, or ignored entirely. 

6. The cost of temporary bracing, supports, roadways, and 
development expenses are frequently underestimated or 
omitted. 

7. Delays due to bad weather, and delays incident to the 
shifting of plant 'from place to place are often not consid- 
ered. 

8. Interest and depreciation of plant, and the percentage 
for profits, are usually underestimated. 

9. Inadequate allowance is made for superintendence and 
general expense. 

10. The cost of inspection and engineering may be under- 
estimated. 

11. Legal expenses due to the abandonment of the work 
by a contractor, or due to suits brought by those who claim 
damages to life, limb or property, are generally not allowed 
for. 

12. Changes in the alinement or in the design, made after 
contracts have been awarded, may result in large claims for 
extra compensation. 

13. Omissions due to carelessness or ignorance of subor- 
dinates in the engineering staff may result in further claims 
for extras. 

14. Rates of wages and prices of materials may rise; and, 
if the work is large, the work itself may be the cause of 
such increases. 

15. When high wages are due to scarcity of men, an "in- 
dependence" is bred in the workmen which decreases their 
efficiency. 

16. A large number of competent foremen frequently can^ 
not be secured for extended work, resulting in decreased 
efficiency of workmen. 

17. If an estimate is based upon previous contract prices 
there is grave danger of error, due to change in conditions, 
unbalanced bids, etc. 

18. If unit prices are estimated before the specifications 
are drawn, the specification requirements may be made 
such as greatly to increase the cost of important items. 

19. Limiting competition by the drawing of unfair, or in- 
definite specifications', is a common cause of high bidding 



PREPARING BIDS. 37 

prices. Sievere interpretatloii of indefinite clauses often 
causes failure of contracting firms, and the histoTy of such 
failures operates to limit subsequent competition, and raise 
prices. 

20. Contractors may combine, especially where the work 
is let in very large contracts, and raise prices. 

Uniformity in Units of Measurement. — The economic 
importance of uniformity in units of measurement cannot 
be overestimated. To illustrate: The common unit of con- 
crete work is the cubic yard, but it is customary to meas- 
ure cement walks in square feet. Now this leads to many 
blunders, not only in estimating the cost of walks but in 
effecting reductions in cost. Not only does the thickness of 
cement walks vary widely, but the proportion of cement to 
sand in each layer of the walk is a variable. Therefore, to 
say that it takes so many barrels of cement to make 100 
sq. ft. of walk means next to nothing unless the plans and 
specifications for the walk are also given. For purposes 
of accurate estimating it is necessary to prepare tables of 
cost of mortars and concretes in terms of the cubic yard; 
then by remembering that 100 sq. ft. having a thickness of 
1 in. are almost exactly 0.3 cu. yd., it is a simple matter to 
convert costs per cubic yard into costs per square foot. 

Not only in computing costs of cement walks, and the 
like, but in reducing costs, does it aid us to use the cubic 
yard as the unit; for it enables us to make comparisons, and 
thereby discover inefl[iciency of workers. Elsewhere in this 
book a case is cited where the labor cost of the face mor- 
tar for a concrete wall was out of all proportion to what 
it should have been. Had the contractor estimated the 
cost of this mortar in cubic yards, he would have discovered 
that it was excessive. The labor of mixing mortar should 
not be much greater than the labor of mixing concrete per 
cubic yard, nor should the labor of conveying the mortar in 
wheelbarrows be greater. The labor of placing it in a thin 
layer is obviously greater than for placing concrete in thick 
layers; but, in the case mentioned, the contractor was los- 
ing his money in mixing and conveying the mortar. He 
had not recognized the fact because he had not reduced its 
cost to dollars per cubic yard of mortar. 

In like manner, one may often see money wasted in mak- 
ing and delivering mortar to bricklayers and masons, be- 



38 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA 

cause the cost of the mortar itself in terms of the cubic yard 
of mortar— not of masonry— has not been calculated. 

The cost of labor on forms and falsework should always 
be recorded in terms of 1,000 ft. B. M., as the unit; for that 
is the common unit of timber work, and, being so, ready 
comparisons can be made only in dollars per M. B. M. 

It is surprising how few managers of men have realized 
the value of reducing the cost of each item of work to units 
that are comparable; and by this I mean units in terms of 
which entirely different classes of work may be compared. 
Thus, in a brick pavement there is grout used between the 
joints. This grout is a thin cement mortar, and it averages, 
let us say, 6 cts. per sq. ft. of pavement. Now, what does 
it average per cubic yard of grout? Probably not one pav- 
ing contractor in a thousand knows; but until he does know 
he cannot compare the cost of grouting with the cost of 
other kinds of cement work. Many a time have I had my 
eyes opened to unsuspected losses and inefficiencies only by 
reducing the costs of the elements of work to units com- 
parable with the units of similar work in other fields. 

The ton is a very convenient unit to use when comparing 
the cost of loading and handling imaterials of all kinds. 
The ton of brick, the ton of gravel, the ton of timber, the 
ton of cast iron pipe, are loaded upon wagons by hand at 
a cost differing not so much, one from the other, as might 
at first be supposed. When reliable data are not available 
for estimating the cost of handling any given material, by 
reducing it to tons an approximate estimate can usually be 
made that will be satisfactory — ^at any rate far more reliable 
than a guess. 

Subletting 'Work and Purchasing Materials,~There 
is seldom a contract that does not involve subcontracting, 
even when the original contract specially prohibits sub- 
conti^acting. Every purchase of materials for which cash 
is not paid at once is a subcontract. The term subcontract- 
ing, however, is commonly applied to the awarding of a 
contract by the contractor; the subcontractor being one 
who undertakes to furnish the labor and materials neces- 
sary to perform a given por'tion of the original contract. 
Whether it be a purchase of materials or an award of a 
subcontract, there is one thing the contractor should never 
neglect to do^ and that is to attach a copy of the original 
specifications to his letter or to his subcontract. In his let- 



RREPARING BIDS. 39 

ter or his subcontract he should make definfte reference to 
the attached specifications, stating that the materials, or 
the work, or both, must conform to those specifications. 
Failure to do this may lead to serious misunderstandings 
and loss. For example, in ordering paving bricks from a 
factory if the contractor fails to say that they must be suHb- 
ject to the inspection and tests of the engineer, and if a 
large percentage of the bricks are "culled" (rejected), the 
manufacturer may refuse to supply other bricks to replace 
the "culls." 

Another point that should never be overlooked is to have 
a icritten contract (an exchange of letters will suffice) for 
any materials or work involving a sum in excess of the sum 
specified in the Statute of Frauds of the State in which the 
material is purchased. In some States this sum is less 
than $100 and in others it is $500. Any verbal contract, 
no matter how many witnesses may be brought, is voidable 
if the sum involved is in excess of that prescribed in 'the 
Statute of Frauds. It is startling to find how many con- 
tractors are ignorant of this law. Once the materials 
ordered under verbal contract have been delivered and ac- 
cepted, the verbal contract as to price becomes binding. 

It is poor practice, in my judgment, to buy or rent any- 
thing by word of mouth; and foremen should be required 
to miake all purchases by written order, keeping a carbon 
copy. All renting of tools or plant should be recorded 
in writing, by an exchange of letters or otherwise, so as to 
have the terms of the rental signed by both parties. I have 
had the verbal rental of a plow by a forem'an cost me $100 
in lawyers' fees, etc. 

A few suggestions regarding the subletting of work: 
Subletting should not be forbidden in the original contract. 
Repeated subletting of the same part of a job may ibe, and 
often is, pernicious in its effect upon the quality of the 
work. O'ne subletting often results in lower cost of work, 
for a subcontractor who gives all his attention to a small 
job can usually get the workmen to do more work than a 
large contractor who has many things to attend to. The 
subcontractor is really a superintendent or foreman whose 
salary Is paid in profits; and he has the best possible spur 
to secure the greatest possible economy. 

The letting of several independent contracts for the dif- 
ferent parts of a structure generally leads to delays and 



40 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

claims for extras due to delays. One indetpendent con- 
tractor may purposely delay another. All this is avoided 
by awarding the whole structure to one contractor, who can 
usually manage several subcontractors much better than 
several independent contractors can be managed iby an 
engineer. 

Contract vs. Day-Labor Work. — -In spite of the fact 
that railway companies, mining companies anxi manufac- 
turers have learned, through long experience, that it is 
cheaper to do work by contract than by day labor under 
their own superintendents, every little while some engineer 
thinks that he has discovered a better way of doing work 
than by contract. In my judgment the ideal system of 
doing every kind of work in the world is by contract. I 
include under contract work all piece-work, for in the case 
of piece-work the contract is with an individual who is paid 
at a specified rate per unit. 

Tlie reason for the economic effectiveness of contract 
work is this: The vast majority of men need more of a 
spur than the fear of discharge for incompetency. Fore- 
men and superintendents are no exception to this rule. A 
contractor is a foreman or superintendent whose spur to 
activity and to the exercise of his brain is the knowledge 
that his salary is his profits, and that his profits depend 
upon his own efforts. 

Occasionally a man may be found who needs no such spur 
— or thinks he doesn't — and he may handle work for his 
employers as cheaply as it can be done by contract. There 
are other men who, through ignorance as to the cost of 
plant maintenance and the hundred and one small items 
forming "general expenses," overestimate the profits on 
contract work, and honestly believe that their employers 
can do work more profitably by day labor. 

When examples are cited to prove the economy of work- 
ing by day labor, as compared with contract work, it is wise 
to ask for the written specifications under which the work 
was advertised and for the written specifications under 
which the work was actually done. An ambiguous specifi- 
cation will force careful contractors to bid high. That 
kind of a specification is usually interpreted in the most 
lenient manner by the engineer who drew it, if he himself 
does the work under it by day labor. No fair comparisoij 



PREPARING BIDS. 41 

can be made between contractor's bids and costs by day 
labor under such conditions. 

Political and social favoritism operates in the highest 
degree under the day-labor system of doing work. But no 
kind of favoritism, save that due to demonstrated efficiency, 
influences a contractor in selecting foremen or men — pro- 
vided he is free from labor union tyranny. 

There is one condition under which day-labor work may 
prove more economic than contract work. When it is im- 
possible, without undue expense, to predict with accuracy 
the quality and quantity of each important item of work, 
then it often proves more economic to do the work by day 
labor, for bills of extras and law suits are thus avoided. 
Work that cannot be readily measured and inspected comes 
under this head. Thus, it is difficult to measure and in- 
spect street-sweeping, railway track maintenance, and many 
other kinds of work, which are at present done best by 
day- labor. My belief is, however, that much of this class 
of work can be measured and inspected and predicted as to 
quantity and quality, provided brains are put into an effort 
to devise ways and means. 

Contracting by the paying of the actual cost plus a per- 
centage is one way of doing certain classes of work more 
economically than by day labor. The objectdon to this 
method is that it puts a premium on sloth. 

A better plan is to pay the contractor the actual cost plus 
a fixed sum agreed upon in advance. This makes it no 
object to be lazy, for the contractor has a strong incentive 
to finish the work as rapidly as possible in order to be free 
to take another contract. For difficult work, for rush work, 
and especially for building construction, this plan of **cost 
plus a fixed sum" has some good features in its favor. Some 
architects' specifications are things ^'fearfully and wonder- 
fully made," and their inspection of work is often worse 
than their specification — both leading to the scamping of 
work and to unreasonably large bills for extras. These are 
avoided under the "cost plus a fixed sum" contract. 

Wherever piece-work can be done there is no need of a 
contractor (using the term in its commonly accepted sense), 
for every worker is then a contractor; but where piece- 
work is impracticable the most ecTOpmic way, in the 



42 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

long run, is to award contracts for all work that can be 
fully and clearly specified as to quantity and quality. Other 
work may often be cheaper *'by the day." 
Instructions to Superintendents and Foremen. — ' 

Some of the most successful contracting firms have sets of 
rules and instructions printed for the use of foremen and 
others. Certain of the "rules" are inflexible and must be 
obeyed; others are more in the nature of suggestions in- 
tended to guide the foreman in doing his work, handling his 
men, purchasing materials, and the like. 

I will give a list of instructions that is by no means ex- 
haustive, but varied enough to give some hints as to the 
character of a set of instructions. Rules such as these 
can be mumeographed on small sheets of paper and bound 
together with clips, so that they can be carried In the 
pocket for reference. 

1. When a foreman arrives at a place where he is to have 
charge of work, he must notify the home office at once by 
postal card, giving the address of his boarding place and 
his office address. 

2. A daily report must be sent to the home office on the 
blanks provided. If no work is being done, still a report 
must be sent in stating that fact, and giving reasons for 
delays, etc. 

3. Eiach foreman must keep a small diary in which to jot 
down the principal events of the day. Such a diary may 
be of great value in case of a law suit. 

4. Eiach foreman must write all orders for materials, 
supplies, etc., in the book provided for the purpose, so that 
a carbon copy of every order will be kept. He must be 
careful to Insert the day of the month. When a foreman 
wishes grading stakes, or instructions from engineers in 
charge of work, let him send a written oirder to the engi- 
neer stating exactly what is wanted. This precaution may 
save ^misunderstandings and delays, and the carbon copy 
of such an order is often useful to check the memory. The 
sooner a foreman learns to be methodical in such small 
matters, the sooner will he be fitted to handle larger mat- 
ters. 

5. No superintendent, walking-boss, engineer, time- 
keeper, or other employee of this firm, is permitted to give 
an order direct to any workman, except in case of great 
emergency. Not even a member of this firm is exempt 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS. 43 

from this rule. The foreman in direct charge of a gang 
of men is the only man permitted to instruct his men what 
to do. He is the oiRcer in charge, and his superior officers 
must not intentionally or unintentionally degrade him in 
the eyes of his men, by issuing orders over his head. 

6. A foreman is not permitted to work with his men. He 
is employed to use his wits, not his hands. Occasionally 
he must instruct a man how to do his work, but he must 
teach the man and not attempt to take the man's place. 
It 'may take a foreman longer to teach a man than to do it 
himself; nevertheless it is cheaper in the long run to teach 
the man. 

7. Do not use laborers to do the work of masons or car- 
penters, but provide a sufficient number of laborers to assist 
the skilled workmen. A 15-ct. man can lift as many 
pounds of wood or stone as a 50-ct. man. Exercise your 
wits in keeping each class of men busy at their particular 
class of work. 

8. In rainy weather keep all steady-pay men busy over- 
hauling machines and tools, sharpening tools, branding 
tools, splicing ropes, etc. 

9. Rush all percentage or force-account work exactly as If 
it were part of the regular contract. The reputation of 
this firm is worth more money than can ever be made by 
^'making work last." 

10. Small jobs of extra work are usually taken on a basis 
of 20% profit on both materials and labor. This leaves 
but a small margin of profit after deducting general ex- 
penses. It is particularly desirable to work as many men 
as possible on a small job, so as to reduce the percentage 
of general expenses. 

11. Keep the addresses of good workmen. 

12. Do not be a "good fellow" with the men under you 
after working hours, or you will lose their respect. Re- 
member the old adage, ''Familiarity breeds contempt." 

13. In case of any accident to a workman or to a spec- 
tator, notify the home office at once by letter. If the acci- 
dent is fatal, notify by telegraph or telephone. We are 
insured against such accidents, but by the terms of our 
policy we must notify the insurance company within 24 hrs. 

14. The best and cheapest insurance against accidents is 
care. Provide barricades, warning notices and red lights 
wherever an excavation is made. Even a small hole un- 



44 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

protected may cause the loss of a life, for which the courts 
may hold this firm responsible. When a street is closed 
by barricades, do not permit an outsider to enter even at 
his own risk; for should an accident occur a law suit is 
certain to follow regardless of the rights involved. 

15. Accept no orders for extra work except in writing, 
and forward such orders at once to the home office. 

16. Fill in your expense account blank every Saturday 
night and send to the home office. 

17. When plans are received indorse your name upon 
them, with the day of the month and year. Write on blue- 
prints with a red pencil. 

18. Avoid all controversy with an engineer or inspector. 
A small quarrel often leads to a big loss. Notify the home 
office in case of unfair or unreasonable orders. 

19. When a car arrives, record its number and character 
of contents. Remember that a demurrage is charged on 
all car- freight held more than 72 hours; but on most roads 
demurrage is estimated by averaging. Thus, if one car is 
held 24 hours before unloading, and another is held 96 
hours; the average is (24 + 96) -h 2, or 60 hours. 

20. Pile lumber with the boards slanting so that water 
will drain off. L<ay as few boards or timbers directly on the 
ground as possible. See that the top layer of boards is 
turned over occasionally to prevent warping. 

21. Insure all lumber and timberwork against fire. 

22. Count and measure all sticks of timber to check the 
bill. To calculate the number of feet board measure (ft 
B. M.) in a sawed stick of timber, multiply the width in 
inches by the thickness in inches, divide this product by 12, 
and multiply the quotient by the length of the stick in feet. 

23. See that all shipments of materials are counted or 
measured, and recorded. 

24. For convenience in estimating the weight of materials 
remember the following: 

Cu. ft. per ton 
Material. of 2,000 lbs. 

Water (621/2 lbs. per cu. ft.) 82 

Sand or gravel 20 

Broken sandstone, limestone or granite 22 

Broken trap-rock 20 

Solid blocks of granite 12 

Qoal, broken .....,.,.....,,, 4Q 



HINTS TO OONTRAOTOM. 45 

Green white oak is heavier than water, and weighs more 
than 5 lbs. per ft. B. M. (there being 12 ft. B. M. per cu. ft.) 
Green southern yellow pine weighs 4^^ lbs. per ft. B. M. 
Kiln dried oak weighs 3% lbs. per ft. B. M.; and kiln dried 
yellow pine weighs 3 lbs. per ft. B. M. In any case, by 
floating a block of wood in water and measuring the total 
depth of the block and the submerged depth, the weight 
can be calculated by simple proportion, thus: 

Depth of block submerged: Total depth of block :: The 
weight per fi. B. M.: 5.2. Thus if the block is 6 ins. deep, 
and 4 ins. are submerged when it floats, we have: 

4 : 6 : : X : 5.2. 

Whence we find that x is nearly 3^/^ lbs. per ft. B. M. 

Familiarize yourself with other rules useful in computing 
weights, etc. 

25. On short hauls where dump wagons are not available 
provide extra wagons which can be loaded while the full 
wagons are going to the dump and returning. Extra wagons 
can usually be rented, and in some cases it will pay to buy 
them, for the lost team time soon eats up the price of a 
wagon. Extra wagons are especially useful where a small 
gang of men is unloiading brick, stone o'r timber from a car 
onto the wagon. When a team comes up with an empty 
wagon, unhitch from the empty, hitch to the full wagon, 
and with a tail rope pull the empty wagon up to place as the 
full wagon moves ahead. 

26. In erecting a derrick or pile driver remember that a 
gin-pole or mast can often be used to advantage. Gin- 
poles are not used as often as they should be for this kind 
of work. 

27. In erecting a trestle for falsework, frame and bolt the 
bents together on the ground, then up-end them. 

28. Use round timber for legs of temporary trestles, for 
trench ibraces, and wherever struts are needed. Round 
timber can usually be bought for much less money than 
sawed stuff. 

29. In buying brick consider the size of each brick; bricks 
vary greatly in size. Large bricks are worth more per M 
than small ones. If 2 x 4 x 8-in. bricks are worth $6.50 
per M, every %-in. increase in the length adds 10 cts. per M 
to the value; and every increase of %-in. In thickness adds 
25 cts. per M. 



46 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

30. 'In buying cement, consider the size of the barrel, and 
the amount of cement paste that can be made with a barrel. 
There is a great variation in ithe product of different fac- 
tories. 

31. Buy cement in wooden barrels for use on small jo^s 
that are liable to lag. Buy cement in cloth bags for most 
work. Pack the bags in bundles of 50, and ship to factory. 
Cement improves with age up to a certain point, if the air 
is not too damp. Use the oldest cement first. 

32. Dynamite must never be thawed in any way except 
with a hot water thawer of the kind furnished by this firm. 
Never thaw in front of a fire, or on a hot stone removed 
from a fire, or by piling sticks on a boiler, or in an oven. 
We know of fatal accidents due to each of these methods. 
There may be safe methods other than the one above 
ordered, but we can not afford to experiment where lives 
are at stake. 

83. Never store dynamite, or acid, or gasoline in a tool 
box. The dynamite may be exploded; the acid vapors will 
eat into ropes and rot them; the gasoline vapors may ex- 
plode or spilled gasoline may result in a fire. Use sand to 
put out a gasoline fire. Hemp rope is weakened not only 
by acid vapors, but by saturation with oil. All rope should 
be kept dry. 

34. In using steam engines, steam drills and derricks, the 
following precautions should be observed: 

Daub grease over all bright parts before storing, also in 
wet weather. Oil the derricks, crushers, wire ropes, and 
all movable parts of machines every day. Cheap black 
grease is usually daubed on wire ropes; but where the ropes 
are moving over sheaves almost continuously, provide an 
oil drip cup to feed oil, drop by drop, onto the moving rope. 

Do not permit men to wash their hands in the water 
barrel or tank that supplies water to a steam boiler, for the 
grease from their hands will cause "priming." 

Boiler flues are frequently "burned" because water is 
allowed to get too low in the boiler. Aside from the danger 
of a boiler explosion in such cases, there is the certain cost 
of repairs. See that the steam cocks. are blown off several 
times daily; and do not rely upon the water glass. 

A lazy or ignorant fireman will pile on coal, and then 
rest until it has burned low. See to it that a thin bed of 
fuel is kept steadily burning. On large hollers use an 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS, 47 

automatic pressure recording g'age to make the firemen 
attend to their business properly. It will not only save 
coal, but result In greater output of engines and steam 
drills. 

Cylinders of engines and steam drills are frequently 
cracked in cold weather by suddenly letting in steam. To 
avoid this open drip cocks and cocks on steam chest and 
blow in steam for a few minutes to warm up the cylinder 
before starting the machine. A broken cylinder may delay 
work for a week. 

Do not let a friction clutch get wet, for it may slip if it 
does. 

Lower the boom of each derrick at night, so that it can 
not be dropped by some one for fun or for spite. Lay down 
short logs at intervals to keep the hoisting rope clear of the 
ground. 

The foregoing will serve as examples of instructions to 
foremen. Each contracting firm will have certain classes 
of work in which it specializes, and will find it advisable to 
prepare mimeographed or printed instructions not only of a 
general nature but of a special nature. Thus, a firm en- 
gaged in building construction may give sketches of scaf- 
folding and instructions as to its erection. A firm engaged 
in bridge building may prepare a set of rules to guide the 
foremen in coffer-dammiing and in false-wo'rk building. 

System is fast taking the place of the hit-or-miss style of 
directing work. A well prepared set of instructions to 
foremen is an essential part of any complete system of 
management. 

SOME HINTS FOR YOUNG CONTRACTORS.* 

PART L 

Advice to beginners in professional work or in business 
is commonly supposed to fall upon dull ears, still the writer 
well remembers the subsequent value of certain suggestions 
once given by a experienced contractor, and is inclined to 
believe that not all advice is wasted even upo'n the most 



*These "Hints" were originally written by the author as a 
series of editorial articles in the Construction News Supplement 
of Engineering News, May 12 to June 16, 1904. 



48 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

self-sufficient young man. Not a year passes but a score 
or more of special lectures are given to students of en- 
gineering by old graduates who offer many suggestions to 
the young men about to enter upon their professional prac- 
tice; but, for obvious reasons, we look in vain for similar 
advice to young men intending to become the actual build- 
ers of engineering structures. The absence of courses of in- 
struction in the business of construction and the fact that 
no society of contractors for engineering works exists, ac- 
count in large measure for the dearth of InfoTmation that 
might save many a young man from failure in his first at- 
tempts at contracting. To the experienced contractor much 
that follows will seem too self-evident to merit reading, 
and with some statements he may not agree. At any rate 
the advice and suggestdons will possess the merit of being 
founded upon personal experience, observation and conver- 
sation with contractors, and as such, may waken thought 
even if the suggestions themselves are ignored. 

It is not likely that any young man will begin contract- 
ing until after he has been for some time either an em- 
ployee of a contracting firm or lan engineer in charge of 
contracting work; but it is quite common for a young man 
to undertake contract work on his own responsibility after a 
short experience on one class of work only. If this work 
has been work involving few risks, such as brick paving, 
for examiple, the young man may succeed from the start; 
but if the work involves more expense for labor than for 
materials, the tables are apt to be turned. The first consid- 
eration, therefore, should be the proportionate cost of labor 
and materials. Quotations can be secured from manufactur- 
ers and tr'ansportation companies that will enable the con- 
tractor to estimiate with great accuracy what his materials 
will cost delivered; but the cost of the labor factor will 
depend upon himself, upon his foremen, and upon the qual- 
ity of the laborers — ^^all more or less indetermdnate factors. 
The logical conclusion, but a conclusion seldom formulated 
in words, is: 

A sm'all per cent, may be added for profit on materials', 
but a large per cent, should be added for profit on labor. 

Under no consideration should the young contractor 
"lump together" all items of cost and add a fixed percentage 



BINTS TO CONTRACTORS. 49 

for profit. Let him segregate the material items, whose 
cost he can ascertain with accuracy, from the labor items. 
Add, say, 10 to 20% to the coat oi materials for profit in fur- 
nishing and handling them; but add at least twice as large 
a percentage to the estimated cost of labor and superintend- 
ence. A good general rule to follow is 15% for profit on mate- 
rials and 30% on labor and superintendence — not for- 
getting the superintendence. Text books written by civil 
engineers who have had no experience as contractors 
very often contain statements to the effect that "the proper 
allowance will usually be 5 to 15%." This quotation 
is from a paragraph referring to the cost of earth- 
work! Of course the contractor will figure on low profits 
where the work is of considerable magnitude, and when he 
is practically certain of a probable labor cost by virtue of 
previous experience under precisely the same condltioois; 
but we are speaking now of small jobs such as the young 
contractoT is likely to undertake at first. 

This leads us to a consideration of the magnitude of the 
work that a young man may safely undertake to perform. 
With all the capital to be desired for large undertakings' at 
hand, still would the young contractor be exceedingly fool- 
ish to bid upon one very large job, or a large number of 
smaller ones at one time, until he has successfully finished 
a few smaller pieces of work. The reasons' for this are not 
always 'apparent to the young man, particularly if he has a 
bold rather than a cautious disposition. He has friends or 
relatives who may be Willing to put money into a business 
venture, and he is fiattered by their trust in him, and by 
his own previous success as an employee. He has read or 
heard of the startling successes of young men in business, 
and, having no knowledge of the innumerable failures, he is 
eager to plunge in where the biggest whales swim. Indeed, 
were he told of all the failures of young men who" have been 
too bold, still would he count himself the exception, and 
give little heed to advice — unless that advice were backed by 
reasons. We purpose, therefore, giving a few reasons why 
the young contractor should work up gradually, taking suc- 
cessively larger contracts as his experience grows. 

In the first place it is evident that the larger the contract 
the more numerous the foremen and bosses. Where are fore- 



50 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

men to \)b found, if a large contract is awarded to you? Can 
you enumerate even five good foremen upon whom you can 
lay your hands to-morrow? You are to be the general, but 
who are to be your captains and your lieutenants? Do you 
fancy that you can pick them all up by advertising and ac- 
cepting each man at his own estimate? If so, a woeful 
disappointment is in store. The best foremen are already 
in the employ of your competitors. You can get similar men 
only by a painfully slow weeding out process. This fact, 
so often overlooked, is indeed the cause of innumerable busi- 
ness failures in all lines of commercial work — the laziness or 
inability of subordinate managers. 

If the job is a small one where you can be your own fore- 
man at first, you will eventually be able to pick out and 
educate one good foreman after having tried half a dozen; 
and this experience will teach you not only the scarcity of 
men able to handle men, but it will be an invaluable train- 
ing in the art of handling men — an art that even when in- 
born requires cultivation by long practice, precisely as does 
any other art. The contractor who cannot manage a gang 
of common laborers is quite certain to be unable to manage 
his foremen. It requires the same severity of discipline, the 
same show of harsh exterior, the same proneness to find 
fault rather than to praise, in order to spur foremen to ac- 
tion as it does to spur the laborers under them to action. 

There is another reason why a man of slight experience 
should not undertake to manage a large piece of contract 
work, even if he were provided v/ith the best of foremen. 
The better the foremen the more quickly will they discover 
any weakness or lack of knowledge on the part of the con- 
tractor, and they will be more than human if they do not 
take advantage of this weakness. Even if they do not con- 
trive directly in some way, to ''make the job last," they will 
surely add materially to the cost of the work in one way or 
another; for it is human nature to take advantage of every 
weakness that may be discovered in a superior officer. The 
general must inspire confidence in his strength of character, 
largely by his knowledge of details and his insistence upon 
the prompt and proper attention to every detail. An in- 
experienced contractor may, for example, be quite hazy as to 
the proper handling of timber-work, whether for temporary 



BINTS TO CONTRACTORS, SI 

or permanent structures; his boss carpenter, will, in all 
probability, know that pneumatic boring machines should 
be used, but, if not provided with them, will make no requi- 
sition for them. The man who has come up from the ranks 
seldom has any friendly feelings for labor-saving devices, 
and this feeling clings to him even after he has become a 
foreman. It requires, as a rule, an intimate and personal 
contact with workers in the different trades to learn such 
facts as these, and one does not get personal contact by 
acting as a time-keeper or as an engineer setting stakes and 
computing quantities. 

This leads us naturally to a brief consideration of the sub- 
ject of labor-saving devices — that is of the plant needed to 
perform any given class of work. With plant as with fore- 
men, a weeding out process secures the best, and such a 
process cannot be made the work of a few days. The tech- 
nical papers do not give much information in their columns 
that will be of assistance in selecting machinery and tools, 
and text books give less. Consulting engineers might often 
give valuable advice, 'but strangely enough the man who 
would not draw up a $500 lease without consulting a lawyer, 
will buy a $5,000 machine without consulting anybody. In- 
deed, he may not even take the pains to visit contract work 
in his own county to learn something from the experience of 
others. Perhaps the most valuable piece of advice to a young 
contractor is this: Whenever you are at liberty, spend some 
of your time visiting and studying the machinery in use on 
contract work. 

The longer a contraictor has been in business the more 
cautious does he become in selecting machinery. Not al- 
ways is the most widely advertised tool the best, although 
it is pretty safe to assume that the successful manufacturer 
advertises liberally, and if he has been in business many 
years his machines must be giving satisfaction. The well- 
established and experienced contractor can afford to experi- 
ment with newly invented machinery, but the beginner in 
contracting never should. He will have his hands full or- 
ganizing and handling the work without attending to the 
development of some new labor-saving device; and in this 
connection it may be well to add that no matter how prom- 
ising the labor-saving device may appear, the bidding prices 



52 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

should not be made a whit lower than they would be with 
older types of machines. 

The subject of machinery and plant is one upon which it is 
difficult to <be brief, but one more hint must suffice. Civil 
engineers are prone to underestimate the percentage th^t 
should be allowed for interest and depreciation, and this 
holds true of every one who has not had to "foot the bills." 
We often see absurdly low estimates of the cost of dredging 
in which either no allowancce at all is made for "plant 
rental," or the allowance is so low as to expose the ignor- 
ance of the writer upon matters pertaining to cost. 

Bear in mind that a contractor's plant is generally idle 
much of every year, and that one or more years may pass 
without its doing any work at all. The Massachusetts 'High- 
way Commission, for example, reports that the steam road 
rollers owned by the State average about 100 days worked 
out of the 365 in the year. This agrees with the writer's esti- 
mate made some years ago. Perhaps as good a way as any 
to determine roughly what amount should be charged for 
plant interest and depreciation, is to secure quotations from 
those having plants to rent. The quotations will always 
seem exorbitant to the inexperienced contractor, but he 
can rest assured that he will find In the long run that no 
great profit is made by those who rent contractors' plants. 
Indeed one of the best pieces of advice that the writer re- 
calls having received from an experienced contractor was 
put very much in the following words: 

"Don't be in a hurry to own your plant. Rent one for a 
while until you learn something about it. Perhaps you may 
not like that kind of a plant at all, after a few weeks' use. 
Perhaps you may get sick of the kind of contracting requir- 
ing the use of such a plant. In either case you are out 
of pocket only a little money at a time, and not a big sum at 
once; and, if you have made a rental contract that entitles 
you to lower rates the longer you keep the plant, you will 
in the end have paid out considerably less than the cost of 
a new plant, and have, in consequence, more working cap- 
ital with which to undertake the next job. It's cash that 
counts; for you can't mortgage a lot of derricks and engines 
for enough money to pay freight on them to the next job." 

In the foregoing paragraph there is one statement that 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS. 53 

deserves emphasis; and that relates to signing a contract 
for plant rental. Usually no formal contract is signed, but 
the agreement is made by letter. If the rental rate is by 
the day, be careful to define what constitutes a day, and 
whether Sundays, holidays and days not worked are in- 
cluded. But the most important thing to bear in mind in 
renting a plant is to secure a sliding scale rate, depending 
upon the length of time the plant is used; so and so much 
for the first month, a lower rate for the second month, and 
so on until a minimum rate is named for each month after 
a certain date. Do not make the common mistake of as- 
suming that your use for the plant will have ceased before 
the expiration of the time limit of your contract. There 
may be extra work; there may be delays in securing mate- 
rials; there may be storms; there may be strikes; and, 
finally, there may be errors in your own estimate of the time 
required to perform the work in hand. All these are rea- 
sons why a sliding scale agreement should be made. 

PART II. 

The crucial test of a contractor's fitness for his work is 
the ability to handle men, but second only in importance is 
his ability to estimate the probable cost of work. These two 
qualifications are not often combined in one man and, as a 
rule, the most successful contracting firms contain one man 
whose special aptitude is organizing and handling men, and 
another whose training and natural bent fit him to estimate 
costs, to keep records and to act in advisory capacity on all 
matters pertaining to the selection and use of machines and 
tools. An experienced foreman and a young civil engineer 
often make an excellent contracting firm, the one possessing 
a knowledge of men and methods, the other a knowledge of 
costs. We do not mean to imply that the young engineer 
is apt to know much about costs at first, but that his train- 
ing has been such as to fit him to keep systematic records 
and to analyze costs. Such firms often break up because 
each man overestimates his own worth and underestimates 
the worth of his partner; but the longer they work together, 
after the second or third contract has been finished, the less 
egotistic is each man apt to become and the more wideawake 
to the true worth of his associate in business. 



54 EANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Ill order to fix a bidding price on the proposed work, if 
no actual records of similar work are available, it is cus- 
tomary to hunt up bidding prices on similar work, strike 
an average, bid a little below the average — and trust to luck. 
To make this process less of a gamble, it is wise to secure 
back volumes of engineering periodicals, and make a scrap 
book using the pages of the journal that relate to contract 
prices. Then as the scrap book should be indexed, a word 
as to indexing may be of assistance. There should be heads 
corresponding. to the items usually found in bidding sheets, 
as follows: Asphalt Pavement, Ballast, Bolts and Spikes, 
Brick Masonry, Brick Sewers, Brick Paving, Bridges, Cast- 
ings, Catch-basins, Cement, Clearing and Grubbing, Con- 
crete, Curbs, Earth Excavation, Embankment, Flagging, 
Flush-tanks, Gravel, Gutter, Hydrants, Iron, Lampposts, 
Lead, Macadam, Manholes, Masonry (stone only, and not 
brick or concrete). Piles, Pipe Sewers, Puddle, Railing, Rip- 
rap, Rock Excavation, Sidewalks, Sodding, Specials, Steel, 
Stone, Timber, Tracklaying, Valves, Water Pipe, etc. As 
far as possible select headings that denote the kind of mate- 
rial used in the structure; but where this cannot be done 
without confusion select the name of the structure as it 
ordinarily appears in bidding sheets. Do not, as a rule, use 
such headings as the following: Abutments, Filling, 
Dredged Material, Foundation, Vitrified Brick Paving, etc. 
An abutment often contains piling, concrete and cut stone 
masonry, and in using the index it may not occur to you to 
look under abutment when looking up prices on concrete. 

Having decided upon headings, cut up a lot of paper strips 
about an inch wide and four inches long, and proceed to go 
through the printed pages to be indexed. When a bid on 
Concrete is found, write on one of these slips, "Concrete, 
pavement foundation, p. 80." Throw the slips aside as the 
index entries are made; and, after a volume has been in- 
dexed, assort the slips alphabetically, and have a type- 
written index copied from them. Simple as this method 
is, the inexperienced man is not likely to think of it, and 
failing to think of it he will look upon the job of indexing 
as being so great a task that in all probability no index will 
be made. Indexes published at the end of the year by the 
technical journals are, as a rule, of no value to the contrac- 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS, 55 

tor; furthermore, the current issues of construction news 
should be indexed as fast as received. Especial care should 
be taken to index classes of work that are out of the ordi- 
nary, for whenever bids must be submitted on similar work 
no better guide than previous contract prices is apt to be 
found. 

The errors that are likely to occur by trusting to previous- 
ly published contract prices have been discussed before, 
so that the subject need not be considered further. 

If the amount of the work to be done is sufficient to war- 
rant the payment of a small fee for advice, a consulting en- 
gineer, known to have had experience in work of similar 
character, may be called upon with advantage. The self-* 
sufficiency of young contractors is often the cause of heavy 
losses which might have been entirely avoided by consufting 
an engineer. Engineers, it is true, are not always to be re- 
lied upon for close estimates of cost; the most common 
error being too low an estimate, due to a failure to add in 
the cost of development work, installing plant, plant depre- 
ciation, etc. But, on the other hand, the bids submitted by 
beginners in contracting are often so wide of the actual cost 
that no consulting engineer could do worse and few would 
be likely to err as badly. 

The estimate of cost made by the engineer who drew the 
specifications should always be asked for, but frequently it 
cannot be obtained. If that engineer has had much experi- 
ence in precisely the same class of work as the class spe- 
cified, and in the same part of the country, his estimate of 
cost is likely to be reliable — otherwise not. Indeed, some 
of the most serious blunders are made by young contractors 
who put too much faith in estimates of cost made by the 
authors of specifications. 

Finally, having secured all the bidding prices and esti- 
mates of cost that can be secured from outside sources, the 
contractor should proceed to make his own estimate of actu- 
al cost, separating each class of work into its minutest de- 
tails. First, he should make a careful estimate of the probable 
cost of the necessary plant, for here it is that most beginners 
"fall down." There^is a time-limit set upon the work. How 
much and what plant is needed to finish the work within the 
time-limit? If the work involves rock excavation, for ex- 



56 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

ample, divide the total yardage to be excavated by the total 
number of days that will be available, after making a lib- 
eral deduction for time lost due to storms, etc. Then know- 
ing the daily yardage that must be moved, ask yourself how 
many steam drills will be needed to break down that yard- 
age daily. Next estimate the number of daily trips that can 
be made by the transporting machinery, whether it be cars, 
cableways, derricks, or what not, and determine roughly 
the amount of machinery required for transporting mate- 
rials. In the same manner estimate in detail the amount 
of every class of machinery required — estimating lib- 
erally. Finally add 20% to the estimate to allow for ma- 
chinery "out of business" in the repair shop, etc. Consider 
all hemp ropes, picks, shovels, and all small tools generally, 
as part of the development expenses and therefore worth 
nothing at the end of even a short job. An allowance of 
from 1 to 2% per month for depreciation of large machines, 
horses, wagons, etc., may be made; but much more should 
be allowed for depreciation and interest where the number of 
years that the plant will be in actual service is uncertain. 

Having distributed the interest and depreciation charges 
over the yardage of materials to be handled, the cost of de- 
velopment work should next be estimated. By development 
work is meant the cost of building roads over which to 
carry machines and supplies, the cost of freight and haul- 
age of plant both ways, the cost of erecting and installing 
the plant, the cost of temporary houses for men and teams, 
and, in a word, all preliminary work that must be done by 
the contractor without direct pay from any one. This de- 
velopment work is often a surprisingly large percentage of 
the total cost, yet it is an item commonly overlooked. 

Having distributed the development work over the yard- 
age of materials to be handled, the next item to consider 
is the cost of materials f. o. b. cars at destination, to which 
must be added the cost of loading, hauling, storing and re- 
handling at the site of the work. 

Especial care should be taken not to omit the cost of 
falsework, forms, bracing and sheeting, cofferdams, and ia 
fact all materials that do not appear on the bidding gheet, 
The same remark holds true of the labor of erecting and re- 
moving these temporary structures, as well as the labor and 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS. 57 

power required for bailing and draining, night watchmen, 
and other labor items involved in protecting the plant and 
the work during construction. 

Next in order of consideration is the probable cost of the 
various labor items involved in building the structure for 
which itemized bids are to be submitted. Having estimated 
the daily amount of work that each kind of laborer can be 
counted on to perform, do not fail to ask yourself whether 
one part of the work may not go ahead faster than another 
part, and thus keep some of the men idle part of the time. 
To illustrate, suppose that a derrick is serving two masons, 
with an engineer, tagmen, mort men, etc., in the gang. The 
derrick-engine and engineer may be capable of delivering 
100 cu. yds. of istone in a day to the masons, but in practice 
only a small fraction of this 100 cu. yds. can be laid in a day 
by the men on the wall. In all cases consider carefully the 
limiting numher of men who can be worked advantageously 
at any one place, and then ask yourself whether this limited 
number does or does not limit the output of other men and 
machines serving them. 

Another point to consider in this connection is the lost 
time that occurs at regular intervals when machines and 
men must be shifted forward to new work. A steam shovel 
may be idle two weeks, for example, while moving it from 
one hill to the next. The masons and their gang may be 
idle, so far as productive work is concerned, while shifting 
the derrick along the wall. 

Having estimated the average prospective output of each 
laborer, consider next the amount of supervision that will 
be required. On work that can be easily measured up each 
day, like slope wall masonry, one foreman can look after 
many men scattered over a large area; but in grubbing and 
clearing, each small gang requires its foreman; hence it ia 
that the percentage of the total cost chargeable to super- 
vision may be as low as 5% or as high as 20%. The contrac- 
tor who has been working in a small way as his own fore- 
man is apt to overlook this important item of supervision in 
estimating the actual cost of work. Each class of work, 
however, should be considered by itself, an intelligent effort 
being made to predict the number of men that can be 
worked under one boss. 



58 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

The next item to consider is supplies. Supplies include ex- 
plosives, fuel, water for boilers, lubricants, and a hundred 
and one small things seldom thought of by the inexperienced 
man. The two important items, explosives and fuel, should 
be estimated with care, and the others can be provided for 
in a general way by a liberal allowance for profit. 

The last important Item is General Expenses. This in- 
cludes salary of general superintendent, salaries of office 
men, time keepers, traveling expenses, office rental, enter- 
tainment expenses, and the like. General Expenses will sel- 
dom run under 4% of the total cost, and they may easily be 
two or three times 4% on small contracts, or where there are 
long periods of idleness between successive contracts. Cer- 
tainly no contractor can afford to ignore consideration of 
this item if he wishes to arrive at an exact cost of each item 
of work with any degree of accuracy. 

PART III. 

To know approximately what the actual cost of every 
item of work will be, is evidently the first consideration in 
making out a bid; but the second consideration is to bid so 
as to secure the greatest possible profit. To do this is pure- 
ly a matter of business, involving no more of **trickiness" 
than every man in every trade exercises. The farmer puts 
up the price on wheat when wheat is scarce; the laborer 
demands higher wages when men are hard to get; and in 
turn the contractor bids higher when competition is light. 
An excellent plan in bidding is, therefore, to attend in per- 
son every letting so as to determine upon the prices to bid 
after noting the number of other contractors present. If 
a contract is worth bidding upon at all it is worth **going 
after" in person and not by letter. Moreover, when the bids 
are opened it is usually possible to secure the bidding prices 
of competitors; indeed, it can always be done on public 
works contracts. If the unit prices are read aloud by a 
clerk, the reading is usually so rapid that unless a blank 
has been prepared beforehand it will be found impossible 
to record the prices as fast as read. To prepare a blank, 
simply make a copy of the bidding sheet, leaving a suflacient 
number of columns in which to enter the bids of competi- 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS. 59 

tors. By doing this beforehand no time will be lost in writ- 
ing the names of items while the clerk is reading, and thus 
it will be possible to secure a complete record of every 
bid which should be subsequently entered in an office note 
hook for future use in ''sizing up" the probable bids of com- 
petitors. 

Should it happen for any reason that the bidding prices 
are not given out, do not become confidential and disclose 
your own prices to some newly-met competitor. Quite like- 
ly he will agree to exchange price for price, and later on 
you may find, after all the bids have been rejected, that 
your friendly competitor had used your prices by which to 
gage his own subsequent bid, and has deceived you as to 
his own prices. 

Returning to the subject of deciding upon bidding prices, 
make it a practice always to check the quantities given in 
the bidding sheet as far as possible. If the contract is a 
large one, or the work is such that you can not personally 
do all the checking, employ an engineer to do so. It is 
astonishing to note the number of errors, typographically or 
otherwise made, that creep into quantity sheets. An error 
of transposition is not uncommon; thus, the engineer may 
have correctly determined that there are 3,000 cu. yds. of 
embankment and 1,200 cu. yds. of riprap, but in the bidding 
sheet the quantities may be transposed so as to read, 1,200 
cu. yds. of embankment and 3,000 cu. yds. of riprap. In 
looking over the quantities, therefore, always ask yourself 
whether each quantity ''looks about right," or not. A 
shrewd contractor will thus discover errors that a whole 
staff of engineers have overlooked. Whenever you see a 
small, and what appears to be an arbitrary quantity, like 
10 cu. yds. of concrete or 50 cu. yds. of rock excavation, look 
carefully over the plans and specifications to discover if 
possible where this quantity is shown in detail. If It can- 
not be found that the quantity has been actually measured, 
it is safe to assume that it has been guessed at, and that 
in consequence it may subsequently prove to be an under- 
estimate. Bid liberally on such items, but bid not too lib- 
erally. More contractors, otherwise shrewd, make the error 
of bidding unreasonably high on such small items than one 
would expect to see. The result sometimes is that their 



60 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

bids are rejected because they are "unbalanced;'* or, if ac- 
cepted, and later it is found that a larger cLuantity of the 
unbalanced item exists, the engineers may either change 
the plans or relet the work covering that item. Set it down 
that seldom is it good business policy to bid an unreason- 
ably high price on any item even on public works contracts, 
and it never is wise to do so on private contracts. EVen 
though the item is small, and the cost of putting up a plant 
to perform the work is large, still bid only a little higher 
price on the item than you would bid if it were many times 
larger, and distribute the estimated cost of plant over the 
other items. 

Another point about bidding on public works is to bid 
high on the work let in the early part of the season so as 
to permit your competitors to "load up" with work in which 
the profits are small. Gradually you will find the prices 
rising as the season advances, and this holds true, whether 
the number of competitors is as great as ever or not; for, 
if there is a normal amount of work in sight, as each con- 
tracting firm secures what it considers its share, the firm 
will bid higher, if they bid at all, on subsequent work. The 
reasons for this are several. In the first place there is a 
limit to the plant investment that any firm cares to make, 
unless it is assured of large enough profits to offset the first 
cost of the additional plant. In the second place the greater 
the amount of work that any firm has on hand, above its 
normal amount, the more inefficient the laborers become; 
for the supply of reliable foremen that any firm can lay its 
hands upon is limited. In the third place, the banks are 
not easily induced to advance cash beyond a certain limit to 
any contractor. There are other reasons, but these are 
enough to show why, in the long run, it may be counted 
upon with certainty that a firm already "loaded up'* with 
work will bid higher. 

Of course, in hard times conditions are apt to be reversed, 
the eagerness to get work at any price becoming greater as 
the amount of the season's work becomes less. The law of 
supply and demand Is one that business men should con- 
stantly consider; and we do not mean by the word "con- 
sider" that the existing supply and demand is to be looked 
into, but that the conditions of the future should be ex- 



iiiXTS TO CONTRACTORS. 61 

amined. It is not a diflficult matter for a contractor to as- 
certain with some degree of accuracy, about how much 
money will be expended in any given locality on any given 
class of work, during the year. The appropriations made 
by legislatures and councils should be recorded and com- 
pared with those of previous years. The projected work 
of railways can usually be predicted with some accuracy 
after a few conversations with the "right men" — ^^and it is 
a part of the farseeing contractor's business to know who 
are the *'right men," and to keep in touch with them. 

Whatever may be the line of work, a contractor should 
strive to foresee the business conditions of the coming year. 
In more ways than one this effort will ultimately be reward- 
ed. If the work to be done involves extensive purchases of 
timber, brick, cement, or the like, then market prices of 
previous years should be platted on cross-section paper so 
as to show at a glance the monthly rise and fall for at least 
a decade past. Then if you are about to bid upon a contract 
which will run over into the next year, observe what the 
trend of prices has been and bid accordingly. Every wave 
has its crest as well as its trough — -don't let yourself be 
caught bidding with trough prices. 

Freight rates, and particularly rates of transportation 
by water, are subject to fluctuations that should be made a 
study by any one who is expecting to pay considerable 
sums for moving materials from one place to another. The 
writer remembers bidding on work involving the trans- 
portation of stone by canal. When the estimate of cost was 
made, the freight rate was 50 cts. a ton; but two months 
later it had risen to 75 cts., and ultimately reached $1 
a ton before all the stone was delivered. Still some engi- 
neers wonder why contractors are not satisfied to estimate 
on a basis of 10 or 15% profit, forgetting that at best there 
is uncertainty enough in most cases to make foolish such 
close bidding. 

Thus far we have discussed estimating costs and pre- 
paring bids; doubtless, however, some readers would like 
to know how an opportunity to bid can be secured. It is 
well known that railways seldom call publicly for sealed 
bids, but prefer to invite a few firms, well known to them 
to submit bids, and in some instances they even offer 



62 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

work to a selected contractor at prices determined Ly the 
railway engineers. On the other hand, although any one 
may bid upon public works, it is not always possible to 
secure an award to the lowest bidder; or, if an award is 
made, political pull may be necessary to secure a profit. 
Under these conditions the young man is apt to lose heart, 
and conclude that the doors are closed and pretty well 
locked against him. But there is a way, of course, to push 
oneself into any business — and perhaps it is just as well 
that bugaboos stand at the gates to frighten away the timid. 
To secure work from a railroad company one must be 
known; to be known one must have worked for the com- 
pany — ^which has a sound like the injunction against going 
near the water until the natatorial art has been mastered. 
In fact, however, the steps necessary to make one's ability 
known to railway officials are simply the steps that any 
apprentice in trade must take. After a sufficient experience 
as timekeeper and foreman for a railroad contractor, an 
opportunity will eventually come to undertake a subcon- 
tract. This subcontract will be a small affair; but, for 
all that, the very best energies should be put into it, for 
it is a test case. Rapidity of execution is the secret of suc- 
cess in railroad contracting— or, indeed, in any class of 
contracting. Push it and keep on pushing it till the final 
estimate. To follow this injunction it is necessary to take 
a less amount of work than you feel yourself able to han- 
dle by personal supervision. Stand over it and sleep upon 
it, avoiding above all things the idea that now you are your 
own boss you are in the leisure class. In fact you may say, 
like Paul Jones, replying to the British admiral, "I have 
just begun to fight." For contract work is a fight and it 
takes fighting blood to win. 

PART IV. 

There is no class of contract work so easy to get into, and 
yet so hard to get out of with profit as a public works con- 
tract. In spite of the fact that the impression prevails that 
a political "pull" is necessary in order to secure a public 
works contract, there is little basis for this belief. Gov- 
ernment contract letting is singularly free from unfairness, 



MINTS TO CONTltACTOM, 63 

although the scarcity of bidders often lends color to an 
opposite opinion. The reason for a scarcity of bidders on 
large contracts can usually be found in the specifications. 
Specifications so drawn as to put the contractor entirely 
under the thumb of the engineer by virtue of the ambiguity 
of the clauses, specifications that put all the burden of 
uncertainty upon the contractor's shoulders, specifications 
that, in a word, do not specify, drive cautious business men 
out of the bidding. Under this class come many of the 
specifications for large government contracts. 

In the same class, also, are many specifications for city 
work — particularly sewer work. Rarely does a city engi- 
neer show a subsurface profile of the rock to be encoun- 
tered; and quicksand is never shown. As a rule, the con- 
tractor is required to take all chances as to the character of 
the material to be excavated. This operates, of course, in 
the interest of a few local contractors (if it operates in the 
interest of anybody), and lends color to the cry of favorit- 
ism, although in fact the engineer is usually a fair man. 
In his desire to avoid claims for "extras," which have be- 
come a sort of bugaboo both to engineers and taxpayers, 
the city engineer has evolved a method of throwing the 
burden of all uncertainty upon the contractor by requir- 
ing him to name a price per linear foot of completed sewer, 
regardless of materials to be excavated. In a less degree, 
contracts for pavements have elements of uncertainty that 
tend to keep out bidders from other cities, the maintenance 
clause being the main element of uncertainty. If the 
clause itself is not indefinite, the probable traffic that will 
come upon the pavement is. In any case, few business men 
care to have all their profits tied up for a term of years, and 
rather than do so, they will either bid high or not at all. 

Thus we see that political "pull" is by no means the all 
important factor in limiting competition for public work. 
It is true that in a few of our larger cities — to their dis- 
grace — ^there is good reason why a contractor would be 
foolish to bid without an associate of "influence." But 
taking the country, near and far, the only "pull" that is 
really beneficial is personal acquaintance with those in 
charge of work. Say what we may about judicial fairness 
in interpreting specification clauses that do not specify, the 



64 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

fairness is more apt to be shown by friends than by 
strang-ers. 

Believing then that a public works contract can usually 
be secured by bidding low enough, the young contractor 
may still have doubts as to his ability to secure bondsmen. 
No man should put in jeopardy the property of his friends 
by asking them to go on his bonds for a contract. It 
matters not how sure he may be of himself and of his 
ability to execute the work at a profit, for he should bear 
in mind that a strike beyond his control may upset all 
calculations. Furthermore, the young man's own estimate 
of himself is apt to have an optimistic tint, to say the least. 
A surety company should be consulted, and it is well to go 
to such a company at first with only a small contract for 
which bondsmen are desired. Be prepared to give them 
in detail your experience and your financial resources, ex- 
aggerating neither; for, in case of subsequent failure, 
criminal proceedings may be brought against a man who 
has misrepresented his resources. If you have but little 
cash capital, frankly isay so, but be prepared to show in 
detail how you purpose doing the work with the funds 
available. Suppose you expect to have a $5,400 earth work 
Job to do; that you will have 12 weeks in which to do it, 
wit h two weeks margin for delays, etc. ; and that payments 
of 85 per cent of the estimated value of the work done are 
to be made monthly, and you purpose beginning the work 
the middle of the month. You estimate the work to cost 
$4,800, hence your weekly pay-roll will be $400 if the work 
is done in 12 weeks. You are to pay your men every two 
weeks, hence you need only $800 in cash to carry you until 
the first of the month, and as your contract calls for the 
monthly payment to be made before the 10th day of the 
month, you can count upon receiving $765 (85% of 
one-sixth of $5,400) in time to apply on the next pay roll. 
Your cash capital to start with is $1,800, or practically twice 
as much cash as will carry the work, in case there are no 
unforeseen delays, and in case you have not underestimated 
its cost. If you are able to persuade the surety company's 
representative that your estimate of actual cost of the 
work is reliable there should be no difficulty in securing 
their agreement to act as your bondsmen. The writer has 



niXTS TO COSTliACTORS. 65 

found a great difference in surety companies; some going 
into tlie details of a contractor's project as if they expected 
to be a partner in the business; others, on the contrary, 
giving only a superficial study of the project. If you have 
perfect confidence in your estimates, select the surety com- 
pany which goes into details most thoroughly. Their judg- 
ment in future contracts may be of great value to you, by 
saving you from yourself. The time will come when every 
reliable surety company will employ agents who are them- 
selves engineers skilled in estimating costs as well as in 
estimating reputations. 

After a contractor has done enough work, even though 
the jobs be small, to prove that he is a trustworthy man, 
he may go with confidence to the banks in the locality 
where he is known, and upon his note secure enough money 
to undertake larger contracts. If a certified copy of the 
monthly estimate can be secured from the engineer, it is 
usually possible to get a banker to advance the cash upon 
it before the day of payment. This is often a matter of 
some importance; in fact, the writer has known three 
weeks, or more, to elapse after the first of the month before 
the check for the last month's work arrived, and, when the 
contractor is loaded up with work requiring the expendi- 
ture of considerable sums for labor and materials, such de- 
lays are often serious, or at least very annoying. Do not 
wait, therefore, until such a delay forces you to go to a 
bank to borrow a large sum of money on the engineer's 
certificate of work done, but make it a practice to borrow 
occasionally on small monthly estimates even when you do 
not really need the money. It is a trait of human nature, 
and particularly of human nature in the banking business, 
to look with suspicion upon a sudden demand for the loan 
of a large sum of money under conditions that previously 
have not required the use of credit. If, however, the banker 
has become accustomed to advancing small sums from time 
to time upon monthly estimates, he is not surprised when 
larger sums are asked for under similar conditions, and 
will not ordinarily refuse. A young contractor once told 
the writer that he established a reputation for prompt- 
ness in paying his notes by borrowing money that he did 
not use at all, but simply stored in a strong box until a 



Go HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

few days before the maturity of the note, when he stepped 
into the bank, made a deposit and promptly paid his note 
the day before its maturity. He found it well thus to in- 
vest some of his money, and eventually bought a reputa- 
tion for a promptness in meeting obligations that enabled 
him to borrow large sums when he really needed them. 
However one may view this practice, it indicates clearly the 
value of asking credit on a small scale, meeting obliga- 
tions promptly, and thus establishing a precedent both for 
the banker and for yourself to follow on 'a larger scale. 

We have touched upon the method of estimating the 
amount of money necessary to handle a contract of given 
size which must be 'finished in a given time, but a few 
words more may not be amiss. 

It ordinarily requires far more cash -capital to handle 
work in which the pay roll is the main item, than work 
in which bills for materials are the main items of 
cost. Laborers must usually be paid as often as once in 
two weeks, in some places once a month and in others 
once a week. Material, such as stone, timber, cement, etc., 
may ordinarily be purchased on time, the time varying 
from 30 to 60 days. Aside from the advantage derived by 
having a longer time in which to' secure money from 
monthly estimates, it is well to remember that material 
men will not go on a strike if pay day is delayed a few 
days. This is often a ''life saver" at periods of unexpected 
distress. In any case, materials will usually pay for them- 
selves if they can be put into work promptly upon arrival. 
O'n the other hand, it often happens that materials are de- 
livered weeks before they can be used, and if the ^contract 
does not require the engineer to allow in his monthly esti- 
mate for "materials delivered," the contractor may be com- 
pelled to pay for the materials long before he can receive 
payment. Here, again, the banks will assist him, if he 
has made it a practice to borrow money upon ''materials 
delivered." Certainly, under such conditions, "materials 
delivered" belong to the contractor, and they form an 
asset which, added to the contractor's personal reputation, 
will serve as security for a loan. 

Where large quantities of purchased materials will be 
required, the contractor should ascertain either by study- 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS. 67 

ing the specifications or by direct inquiry of the highest 
officials whether ''materials delivered" will or will not be 
included in monthly estimates. If engineers knew how 
often their refusal to estimate "materials delivered" results 
in tardy deliveries in small lots, possibly the practice of 
paying monthly for "materials delivered" would be every- 
where followed. Whether contracting firms are large or 
small, the tendency is to take as much work as their cash 
capital will enable them to handle. Mere size, therefore, 
does not always mean unlimited credit, and if a large firm 
is working nearly up to the capacity of its credit, it is quite 
as likely to be embarrassed as a ismall firm by delay in 
payment for "materials delivered" as well as for work 
done. 

PART V. 

The failure of many business enterprises is not due so 
much to a lack of knowledge of proper business rules and 
principles as to a lack of persistence in the application of 
those rules and principles. It is easier to reason out a mode 
of procedure than to follow it, the tendency being always to 
trust to luck in too great a measure, and to defer the appli- 
cation of the rule. For example, an employer of men ob- 
serving that men work with greater energy when they are 
paid a bonus, deduces the following rule: It pays to share 
the profits with the employees when they especially exert 
themselves. But, having come to a logical conclusion, the 
employer often stops there. He may excuse himself on the 
ground that the work he has in hand is of a class to which 
it is exceedingly difficult to apply any such rule, or, what 
is more likely, he may consider himself an exception 
among managers and determine to drive the men without 
giving up any part of his prospective profits. In any case, 
he will probably find that without some direct and imme- 
diate monetary gain, employees will not do their best. 

In introducing any bonus system, it is best to begin with 
the foremen, for being more intelligent they will more 
quickly respond to any such encouragement. If you are 
crushing rock, for example, there should be some system of 
tallying either loads, delivered or the loads removed each 
day. The man who is running the crushing plant should 



68 IIA^'DBOGK OF CO^T DATA. 

be required to report daily, giving the output and the time 
lost, if any, due to breakdowns, etc. Reports of progress 
should always be daily reported. The reason for this is 
that few men look far enough ahead to be spurred to 
action when the work is measured up only once a week or 
once a monLh. These daily reports should be made on 
mimeographed or printed blanks which require only the 
slight labor of filling in with the figures showing the work 
done and the force employed. A mimeograph will soon save 
its cost; and it enables a contractor to get out new forms 
of blanks at a moment's notice, without waiting for a job 
printer. When the reports are received at the central office., 
they should be recorded in isuch form as to make it easy 
to compare the progress from day to day. 

Assuming that the average output of a crusher has been 
60 cu. yds. per day under the ordinary methods of working, 
it will probably be possible to increase the output by 
20% upon offering a fair bonus for each yard over 60. 
Make the experiment first by offering to the man in charge 
a bonus of, say 10 cts. per cu. yd., for all over 60 cu. yds. 
per day, and note the result. If there is no adequate re- 
turn, it may be well to change foremen, or dispense with 
a foreman entirely and divide the bonus among the labor- 
ers. As a matter of fact, this latter procedure often yields 
surprisingly good results; for, if the expense of an idle 
foreman can be eliminated, there will be a saving of 5 to 
15% in the cost of doing the work, so that the money 
expended as a bonus yields not only an increased output 
of the plant, but reduces the cost of supervision. There 
are, and always will be, classes of work requiring the con- 
stant attention of foremen, and in such cases it will usually 
he found best to give half or perhaps all of the bonus 
to the foreman. On the other hand, where the foreman acts 
merely as an overseer to prevent shirking of duty, it is fre- 
quently possible to dispense with him entirely by introduc- 
ing the bonus system. 

Whether the bonus system is used or not the work should 
be laid out, wherever possible, so that there will be compet- 
ing gangs of men. In laying the concrete foundation of 
a pavement, for example, assign one-half the street, from 
the center to the curb, to one gang of men, and the other 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS. 69 

half to another gang. The rivalry so engendered will in- 
variably lead to faster work. The larger the gangs of men 
the more desirable does it become to work thus in rivalry, 
even where the bonus system is used; for wherever there 
is a large gang there are sure to be some naturally lazy 
men whom no amount of bonus can induce to work at a 
reasonably fast rate. Moreover, the larger the gang the less 
interest does each man feel in the bonus, hence the desir- 
ability of supplying further stimulus, such as rivalry sup- 
plies. 

Perhaps the most striking example among business men 
of success that has attended profit-sharing is to be seen in 
the person of Andrew Carnegie. He has not only made 
millions for himself, but he has made great sums for the 
ablest of his employees. Had he attempted to "hog it all," 
there is every reason to believe that the most ambitious, and 
consequently the best of his employees would have left 
him from time to time, some of them to start in a competi- 
tive business for themselves, others to become employees 
in competing firms. The bonus system is a system of profit- 
sharing, and it is surprising to find certain labor unions 
arrayed against it. It is a system that tends to reduce the 
amount of supervision to a minimum, and, as all men dis- 
like being "bossed," the wonder is that any laborers are 
to be found to oppose it. Perhaps the trickery of employ- 
ers is largely responsible for the opposition to this form of 
profit-sharing, for it often happens that an employer, upon 
finding that his men produce with greatest ease at least 
25% more under the bonus system, decides to keep the 
higgest part of this increased production himself by cutting 
down the rate of bonus paid. Not without reason, there- 
fore, does the laborer say that the bonus system will lead 
to harder and harder work with no reasonable increase 
in wages. Possibly the really useful function of the labor 
unions of the future will be to hold employers to their 
implied agreements in the matter of profit-sharing under a 
bonus or premium system, for it certainly is rank trickery 
to induce men to work harder by an offer of a share in 
the profits only to seize the lion's share and leave them little 
more than before. 

An expedient worth considering, where several gangs 



70 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

of men are working under different foremen, is the plan of 
changing the foremen about. This was done with excellent 
results in driving a tunnel near the City of Mexico. After 
the work has been well organized, it is possible thus to 
shift the foremen from week to week, or from month to 
month, without disorganizing the gangs. The advantage of 
such shifting lies in the fact that familiarity breeds le- 
niency. The forem^an who will be exacting with strange men 
will often become **a good fellow" after a short time, and 
the result is that the output of the men under him falls 
off. The writer has often noticed that foremen who would 
secure an output of 15 cu. yds. of earth loaded per man per 
day for the first two weeks on a job, would after that 
slowly relax until a falling off of 20% or more in output oc- 
curred. It is well usually to have foremen who are strang- 
ers to the men, and to see that they remain strangers. 

Another expedient that was also tried on the above men- 
tioned tunnel work was the working of broken shifts; that 
is, the men worked four hours, then laid off four hours 
while another gang took their places, and then returned to 
work four hours more. By this means the progress of the 
tunnel driving was increased about 50%. Doubtless this 
method would show (better results with such workers 
as are found in southern climates than with workers in 
the north. Still there is good reason for believing that it 
would prove effective wherever men are willing to work 
intermittently. By paying some bonus for progress it may 
be possible to induce men to work thus, for then their in- 
terest in making progress is identical with that of their 
employer. Of course where men are running machines, like 
air drills or steam shovels, there is little to be gained 
by such a method of working; but men doing hard phy- 
sical labor would doubtless accomplish more by working 
vigorously for a half shift and then taking a long rest be- 
fore finishing their shift. 

Wherever a contractor is working in the country he 
should have his own lodging camp at which all men should 
be required to lodge. The object of this is not to make 
money by renting bunks, but to be in a position to make 
strikers leave the country entirely, if strikes occur. For 
the same reason, a company store should be kept by th^ 



HINTS TO CONTRACTORS. 71 

contractor, if he does not board the men. To be able thus 
to cut off the source of supplies of the opposition is often 
the only way of breaking up a strike. A contractor having 
based his estimate of cost upon ruling wages is often most 
unjustly attacked hy his men who seek an increase in 
wages which if granted would mean his ruin. Laborers 
do not consider that side of the matter at all, and the more 
lenient and "white" the contractor has been the more likely 
is a strike for increased wages to occur. By being fore- 
sighted a contractor can usually bring a strike to a sudden 
end, or prevent it entirely when his work is not near the 
permanent residences of the strikers. On large work a 
few detectives among the workers (detectives who are 
workers themselves and are old and trusted employees) 
will give the first hint of talk about striking. Then is the 
time to act, and not after the talk has ripened into resolu- 
tion. Immediately shake up the forces; lay off part of the 
gangs, including some who are not agitators along with 
the agitators. Let it be known by rumor that the intro- 
duction of more machinery is contemplated in order to dis- 
pense with hand labor, and what is more, rush some ma- 
chinery in even if it does not pay directly to do so, and 
even if it does not replace the men laid off. War tactics 
must be met in kind. A strike is a labor war, and a strike 
against a contractor is usually a treacherous attack. If 
the employees of a factory strike for higher wages and 
win, the manufacturer usually makes the public foot the 
bill in the end; certainly where such strikes are general, 
he does. But a contractor is virtually robbed by a strike 
occurring after he has begun work. If footpads were to 
hold him up and take his money he would be better off, 
for then at least he would have some chance of recovering 
it. The foregoing statements are all based upon the as- 
sumption that the contractor is paying rates of wages that 
were standard in the place and at the time of the letting 
of the contract. 

If labor unions were to give notice that their members 
would not work under contracts taken on and after a cer- 
tain date, at less than a certain wage, contractors would 
then simply ''figure accodingly." As it is, however, such 
fair action is seldom taken. Perhaps this is another feature 



72 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

that the labor unions of the future may consider with 
profit. At present the contractor must protect himself as 
best he can by the exercise of forethought, for it is fore- 
thought that gives to the leaders of men a power not pos- 
sessed by the men they lead. 



SECTION II. 
COST OF EARTH EXCAVATION. 

Earth Measurement. — Earthwork is paid for by the 
cubic yard, and is usually measured ''in place," that is. In 
the natural bank or pit before it has been loosened. The 
price paid usually includes the excavating, hauling and 
placing the earth in the embankment, and no extra price is 
paid for making the embankment — in other words, the 
earth is paid for ibut once Occajsionally, in dike work, in 
building reiservoir embankments, and wherever it is very 
difficult to measure the earth in place, it Is specified that 
the earth shall be measured in the consolidated embank- 
ment. However, unless otherwise stated, all costs given in 
this book refer to measurements of earth in place. 

Many specifications for railroad work contain an ''over- 
haul clause," which provides that for all earth hauled more 
than a certain specified limit, the contractor shall be paid 
a certain amount per cubic yard, usually 1 ct. per cu. yd. 
per 100 ft. overhaul. The specified limit of ''free haul" is 
sometimes 1,000 ft, sometimes 500 ft. Even in case of an 
overhaul, no additional payment is made for building the 
embankment, but only for the overhaul. 

Earth Shrinkage. — Earth when first looisened and shov- 
eled into a wagon swells, that is, it occupies more space 
than it did "in place"; but, when placed in an embank- 
ment and rolled or pounded down, it shrinks, and this 
shrinkage is often so great that the earth occupies less 
space in the embankment that it did "in place." The fol- 
lowing i,s a summary, based upon data of actual tests given 
in my book on earthwork: 

1. Taking extreme cases, earth swells when first loosened 
with a shovel, so that after Icosening it occupies IV7 to 
li/s times as much space as it did before loosening; in other 



74 HANDBOOK OF COtiT DATA, 

words, 10036 e'arth is 14% to 50% more bulky than natural 
bank earth. * 

2. As an average, we may say that clean sand and gravel 
'swell Vt, or 14% to 15%; loam, loamy siand or gravel swell 

V5, or 20%; dense clay, and dense mixtures of gravel and 
clay, % to %, or 33% to 50%, OTdiniarily about 35%; while 
unusually dense gravel and clay banks swell 50%. 

3. Loose earth is compacted by several means; (a) the 
puddling action of water, (b) the pounding of hoofs and 
wheels, (c) the jarring and compressive action of rolling 
artificially. 

4. If the puddling action of rains is the only factor, a 
loose mass of earth will shrink slowly back to its original 
volume, but an embankment of loose earth will at the end 
of a year be still about V12, or 8%, greater than the cut it 
came from. 

5. If the embankment is made with sm'all one-horse 
carts, or wheel scrapers, at the end of the work it will 
oiccupy 5 to 10% less space than the cut (from which the 
earth was taken, and in subsequent years will shrink about 
2% more, often less than 2%. 

6. If the emb'ankment is made wiith wagons or dump 
cars, and made rapidly in dry iweather without water, it 
will shrink about 3% to 10% in the year following the com- 
pletion of the work, and very little in subsequent years. 

7. The height of the embankment appears to have little 
effect on its subsequent shrinkage. 

8. By the proper mixing of clay or loam and gravel, 
followed by sprinkling and rolling in thin layers, a bank 
can be made weighing 1% times as much as loose earth, 
or 133 lbs. per cu. ft. 

9. The bottoms of certain .rivers, banks of cemented 
gravel, and hardpan, are more than ordinarily dense, and 
will occupy more space in the fill than in the cut unless 
rolled. 

Kinds o£ Barth. — ^Earth may be divided into three 
classes as regards difficulty of excavation: (1) Easy earth; 
(2) average earth; and (3) tough earth. To the first class 
belong loam, sand, and ordinary gravel, which require 
little or no picking to loosen ready for shoveling. To the 



EARTH EXCAVziTICm. 75 

second class belong sands and gravels impregnated with an 
amount of clay or loam that binds the particles together, 
making it necessary to nse a pick or a plow drawn by two 
ho'rses to loosen the earth before shoveling. To the third 
class belong the compact clays, the hardened crusts of old 
roads, and all earths so hard that one team of horses can 
pull a plow through the earth only with greatest difficulty, 
but that two teams of horses on one plow can loosen with 
comparative ease. 

This third class of earth passes by insensible degrees into 
what is called ''hardpan." Hardpan commonly means <a 
very compact clay, or mixture of gravel or boulders with 
clay. Soft shales that can be plowed with a rooter plow are 
sometimes called hardpan. There are also certain gravels 
cemented with an iron oxide (iron rust) which are called 
hardpan. 

There are many local names applied to different kinds 
of earth. "Adobe" is a name much used in Texas, Arizona, 
California and neighboring states to denote any clay of 
which mud bricks, or adobes, might be made. ''Gumbo" is 
a word used in the Mississippi Valley to denote a black 
loam containing so much clay as to be exceedingly sticky 
when wet. "Marl" is, strictly speaking, a mixture of clay 
and pulveTized limestone, but the term is often applied 
to clay soils containing only 1% to 2% of limestone dust, as, 
for example, the green&and marls of New Jersey. There 
are many loical deposits of disintegrated minerals, which, 
when soapy in texture, -are often ealled marl. In some 
cases these deposits are so greasy that, When saturated with 
water, slides and cave-ins occur when an attempt is made 
to excavate them. 

Quicksand is a term applied to any sand, or sandy mate- 
rial, which flows like molasses when the sand is saturated 
with water. 

In this book the rules for estimating costs, unless other- 
wise stated, relate to "average earth," as above defined. 

Definitions of Haul and Lead. — ^"Liead" is a term 
used to denote the horizontal distance in a straight line ■ 
from the center of mass of the pit to the center of m'ass of 
the dump. The pit, in this case, refers to the volume of 



76 HANDBOOK OF CO^T DATA. 

earth to be excavated, and the dump refers to the embank- 
ment. The **lead" does not include the distance actually 
traveled, including turnouts, etc., from pit to dump; this 
actual distance traveled by the cars or wagons is called 
the "haul." The ''haul" is then half the distance traveled 
by a car or wagon in making a round trip. 

Work of Teams. — A '"team," as used in this book, 
means a pair of horses and their driver. Even where the 
word driver is omitted in speaking of the cost ot team 
woirk, the wages of the driver are always included under 
the word **team." A good average team is capable of trav- 
eling 20 miles in 10 hrs., going 10 miles loaded and return- 
ing 10 miles empty, over fairly hard earth roads. If the 
team is traveling constantly over soft ground, 15 miles is a 
good day's work. On the other hand, if the team is travel- 
ing over good gravel or macadam roads, or paved streets, 
it is possible to average 25 miles per 10-hr. day. These 
rates include the occasional stops made for rests, etc., and 
include the climbing of an oiccasional hill. 

When traveling at the nate of 2% miles an hour, which is 
the ordinary walking gait of horses, the distance coveired 
in 1 min. is 220 ft. Over good hard roads a team may trot 
with an empty wagon at the rate of 5 miles per hr., and 
thus make up for delays in loading and unloading, so as 
to cover the full 20 miles of daily work; but over soft 
ground a team should not trot. 

The loads that a team can haul (in addition to the weight 
of the wagon) over different kinds of roads are as follows: 

Earth, 
Short Tons. cu. yds. 

Very poor earth road 1.0 0.8 

Poor earth road 1-25 1.0 

Good hard earth road 2.0 1.6 

Good clean macadam road 3.0 2.4 

It is not possible to haul much greater loads over an 
asphalt or brick pavement than over a first-class, clean 
macadam. On all the kinds of roads to which the above 
averages apply, there were occasional steep grades to as- 
cend, and occasional bad spots to pass over. 



EARTH EXCAVATION. 77 

The pulling power of a horse averages about one-tenth of 
his weight when exerted steadily for 10 hrs.; that is, a 
1,200-lb. horse will exert an average pull of 120 lbs. on the 
traces. But for a short space of time the horse can exert a 
pull (if he has a good foothold) equal to about four-tenths 
his weight, that is, four times his average all-day pull. 
This I have tested with teams, not only in ascending steep 
grades but in lifting the hammer of a horse^operated pile 
driver. 

Where teams are traveling long distances, it is cus- 
tomary to have two wagons keep together, so that one team 
can help the other up a steep hill by lacting as a ^'snatch 
team." A "snatch team," or helping team, may often be 
kept busy to advantage in pulling heavily loaded teams 
out of a pit, or onto a soft embankment, or up a steep grade. 
Three-horse isnatch teams are frequently used. A small 
hoisting engine may replace a snatch team to advantage 
in many piacciS. By laying channel irons for rails up a 
steep hill, and having a hoisting engine at the top, very 
heavy loads can be assisted over bad roads. In this case, 
a boy mounted on a pony can drag the hoisting rope back 
to the foot of the hill ready for the next team. Plank 
road's can often be built to advantage for short distances 
up steep grades, or over bad spots. 

In the far West it is customary for three or more teams 
to be hitched to a train of two or more wagons; and, 
when a steep hill is to be ascended, to haul one wagon up 
at a time. This saves wages of drivers. 

Cost of Maintaining Teams.. — ^^The writer has main- 
tained teams at the following cost per month per team of 
two horses: 

Va-ton of hay, at $10 $ 5.00 

30 bu. oats, at 35 cts 10.50 

Straw for bedding 1.00 

Shoeing and medicine 2.00 

Total $18.50 

A generation ago there were 2,000 horses used on the 
Brooklyn street railways. The cost of feeding each horse 



78 HANDBOGK OF COST DATA. 

was $10 a month, and the depreciation in value of each 
horse was 25% per annum. 

Contract work is not so severe as street car work; still 
the annual depreciation is probably not less than 15%. A 
team, wagon and harness costing $300 should be charged 
with about $60 per 'annum for interest and depreciation. 
When the team is working it must be fed oats, when not 
working it can be fed on hay at half the usual cost. 

The following gives the average feed of hoTses and mules 
used by the H. C. Frick Coke Co., extending over a period 
of 6 years; 500 lbs. of hay, 7 bushels of oats, 4% bushels of 
corn on the ear, per head per month. The daily feed of 
each animal was two feeds of corn, 13 ears to the feed (70 
lbs. per bu.), one 6-quart feed of oats, and about 16% lbs. 
of hay. Each animal averaged about 13 miles traveled per 
day underground, 15 miles being the maximum 10-hr. day's 
work. It will be o«bserved that this feeding agreeis very 
closely with the writer's experience. 

It is not ordinarily possible to get more than 180 days of 
work per annum out of a cointractor's team in the North, 
and very frequently much less. We m'ay, therefore, say 
that $1.50 for each day actually worked by the team will 
cover its feed, interest and depreciation, for the year. If 
the driver is paid only while at work, then his $1.50 added 
to that of the team makes $3 a day for each day worked. 

The cost of feeding 25 horses at work building roads .near 
San Francisco, for a period of 12 mos., was as follows, per 
horse per day: 

28 lbs. wheat hay, at $15.50 per ton -$0,215 

12 " rolled barley, at $24.10 per ton 0.150 

iVz " oats, at $27.40 per ton 0.020 

14 " bran, at $21.20 per ton 0.003 

1% " straw bedding, at $13.80 per ton 0.009 

Wages, 1 stableman ($775 for year), and hauling for- 
age ($281- foT year) 0.113 

Total per horse per day $0,510 

The above shows a consumption of nearly 42 lbs. of feed 
per horse per day, which seems large, but is not excessive 



EARTH EXCAVATION, 79 

for heavy draft horses working daily. A conseryative es- 
timate of the food waste is 5%. 

A 'four-horse teani averaged 16i/^ miles traveled per day 
over fair macadam roads with some 5% gradeis. The load 
was 3 short tons, plus the 0.65-ton wagon; and the haul, 
one way, was ^ to 1 mile. 

Cast of Plowing. — A team on a plow will loosen 500 cu. 
yds. of loam, or 350 cu. yds. of loamy gravel, or 250 cu. yds. 
of fairly tough clay, per 10-hr. day. For ''average earth," 
therefore assume 350 cu. yds. per day loosened by a team 
and driver and one man holding plow. With wages at $3.50 
for team and driver, and $1.50 for laborer, the cost of plow- 
ing average earth is l^^ cts. per cu. yd. 

In plowing very tough material with a plck^pointed plow, 
four horses and three men, estimate 180 cu. yds. plowed per 
day at a cost of 5 cts. per cu. yd. 

Cost of Picking and Shoveling. — ^When wages are 
$1.50 per 10-hr. day, the cost of loosening earth with a pick 
(instead of a plow) ranges from 1 ct. per cu. yd. for very 
easy earth, to 11 cts. per cu. yd. for very stiff clay or ce- 
mented gravel; for "average earth" the cost of picking is 
about 4 cts. per cu. yd. 

The cost of loosening with a pick and shoveling into 
wagons is as follows, wages being 15 cts. per hr.: 

Per 
cu. yd. 

Easy earth, light sand or loam 12 cts. 

Average earth ; 15 " 

Tough clay 20 " 

Hardpan 40 " 

The amount of earth that a man can load with a shovel 
varies with the character of the earth, the way it has been 
loosened, the size and shape of the shovel, etc. If a man is 
shoveling earth from the face of a cut that has been under- 
mined and broken down with picks, he can readily load 18 
cu. yds. per 10-hr. day, after the earth has been loosened. 
If he is shoveling plowed earth, where he must use more 
force in driving the shovel into the soil, he will easily load 
14 cu. yds. of average earth in 10 hrs. If he is shoveling 



80 BAjSDBOOK of CO^T DATA, 

loose earth off boards upon which it hais been dumped, he 
can load 25 cu. yds. in 10 hrs., but it is not wise to count 
on more than 20 cu. yds. even under good foremanship. 

For data on the cost of trenching, the reader is referred 
to the sections on Sewers land on Water-works. 

Cost of Trimming, Rolling, Etc. — ^After earth has been 
dumped from carts or wagonjs, a man will spread in 6-in. 
layers by hand 75 cu. yds. in 10 hrs., at a cost o>f 2 cts. per 
cu. yd. A leveling scraper, or road machine, will spread 
large quantities of earth for y^ ct. to % ct. per cu. yd. With 
a Shuart grader (or leveling scraper) operated by a team 
and driver and a helper, the lauthor has had 500 cu. yds. 
spread per day. A road machine, operated iby 6 horses and 
2 men, will spread 900 cu. yds. in 10 hrs. in 6-in. layers, 
earth having been dumped from patent dump-wagons. 

A man can thoroughly tamp 25 cu. yds., in 6-in. layers, 
per 10-hr. day at 6 cts. per cu. yd. Embankments can be 
consolidated with horse-drawn rollers for y^ to 1 ct. per cu. 
yd., wages of a team being $3.50 a day. I have one record 
of 3 cts. per cu. yd. (at the above wages), for rolling a res- 
ervoir embankment, but the work was not well handled. 

The cost of sprinkling embankments, if specified, is diffi- 
cult to estimate because of the vagueness of specifications. 
However, more than 8 cu. ft. of water per cu. yd. of earth, 
is seldom required. 

On a large emibankment three sprinkling carts, each 
drawn by three teams, with one driver, sprinkled 1,000 cu. 
yds. of earth per day of 10 hrs., with short haul. Such 
carts each held 150 cu. ft. of water weighing 4% tons, which 
is an exceedingly large capacity. A sprinkler of this size 
can be loaded from a tank in 15 mins., and emptied in the 
same length of time. Knowing the length of haul and 
speed of team the cost of sprinkling is readily determined. 
In the case just given the coist was 2^/4 cts. per cu. yd. of 
earth for sprinkling and about 5 cu. ft. of water per cu. yd. 
were used. 

From several careful observations the writer has found 
that a gang of men under a good foreman will each trim 
the sod and humps off the hard surface of a cut to the depth 
of 1 or 11/2 ins. at the rate of 200 sq. ft. or 22 sq. yds. per 



EARTH EXCAVATION. 81 

hour, at a cost of Vs-ct. per sq. yd.; and where there was no 
sod to remove, the soil being sandy loam, the cost was one- 
half as much or %-ct. per sq. yd. Massachusetts contrac- 
tors bid almost uniformly 2 cts. a sq. yd. for ''surfacing'* 
(wages 17 cts. per hour), which includes rolling the finished 
surface with steam roller. A roadway, including ditches, 
36 ft. wide and a mile long, has 21,000 sq. yds. of surface, 
which, at %-ct. is $140, actual cost of trimming. If the to- 
tal excavation in a mile is 3,500 cu. yds. (which is about the 
average in N. Y. State), the cost of trimming, distributed 
over this 3,500 cu. yds., is 4 cts. per cu. yd. of excavation, a 
cost much greater than a mere guess would lead one to 
suppose. The author has directed the scraping of a light 
growth of weeds and grass off the 4-ft. shoulder of a road 
by going once over it with a Shuart grader, at a rate of 200 
sq. yds. per hour, or ten times faster than a man with a 
mattock would have done it; making the actual cost about 
%-ct. per sq. yd. where the team, driver and helpers' wages 
were 50 cts. per hoiir. 

Cost of Wheelbarrow Work, — A man wheeling a bar- 
row over run-plank can not be counted on to travel more 
than 15 miles per 10-hr. day. If the runway is level a load 
of 300 lbs. or more may be wheeled in a barrow, but it is 
not safe to count upon more than 250 lbs., or Vio cu. yd. of 
earth. This is for good level runways, but, as most wheel- 
barrow work involves ascending s1?eep grades, estimate Vi* 
to Vi5 cu. yd. per barrow load. With wages at 15 cts. per 
hr., the cost of wheeling earth in barrows is, therefore, 5 
cts. per cu. yd., per 100 ft. of haul, the haul being the dis- 
tance from pit to dump. If the irunways were level, and 
the men worked hard, the cost might be reduced to 3 cts. 
per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of haul. 

The cost of picking and loading has already been given, 
and may be assumed to be 15 cts. per cu. yd. A wheelbar- 
row is dumped in about % min., which is equivalent to a 
losis of nearly 4 mins. per cu. yd., where 15 barrow loads 
make a yard; and this- is equivalent to 1 ct. per cu. 
yd. for dumping the barrows. The time lost in changing 
barrows, etc., may easily add another 1 ct. per cu. yd. The 
rule for estimating the cost of loos.ening, loading and haul- 



82 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

ing average earth in barrows is as follows when Wages are 
15 cts. per hr.: 

Rule I. — To a fixed cost of 17 cts, per cu. yd., add 5 cts, per 
cu, yd. per 100 ft. of haul. 

Cost by One-Horse Carts. — ^Simall two-wheeled carts 
drawn by one horse are often used on railway work. If the 
haul is level or slightly down hill and over a well com- 
pacted embankment, a horse will pull 0.6 cu. yd. per load; 
but over poor earth roads it is not safe to count upon more 
than 0.4 cu. yd. per load, if there are any steep grades to 
ascend. On short hauls of 300 ft. or less, one driver can 
tend to two carts by leading one to the dump while the 
other is being loaded. A gang of 4 or 5 men should load 
a cart with 0.4 cu. yd. in 3 mins., and it takes about 1 min. 
to dump a cart, so that 4 mins. of cart time are "lost" every 
round trip. If the wages of a horse are $1 per 10-hr. day, 
and the wages of a driver are $1.50 a day, the wages of a 
cart and half a driver are $1.75 a day. The 4 mins. "lost 
time" is therefore equivalent to 3 cts. per cu. yd. The cost 
of picking and loading average earth i^ about 15 cts. per 
cu. yd., as previously given. A dumpman can easily dump 
a cart load a minute, where he has no -spreading to do; 
but the material is seldom delivered fast enough. If we 
assume 150 cu. yds. delivered to him in carts in 10 hrs., the 
cost is 1 ct. per cu. yd. for dumpman's wages. Hence the 
total fixed cost may be assumed as 15 + 3 + 1 ct, or 19 cts. 
per cu. yd. If the cart load is 0.4 cu. yd., and wages are as 
above given, we have the following rule: 

Rule II. — To a fixed cost of 19 cts. per cu. yd. add %'Ct. per 
cu. yd. per 100 ft. of haul. 

If the material is plowed, and is shoveled easily, the fixed 
cost may become 14 cts. per cu. yd. instead of 19 cts. 

If the haul is long, one driver may still attend to two 
carts by taking them both together to the dump. There are 
occasions, however, when one driver attends to only one 
cart; in such cases the cost of hauling is 1 ct. per cu. yd. 
per 100 ft. 

In cities, where the carts travel over hard earth or gravel 
roads, a cart carrying % cu. yd. may be used. The cost of 



EARTH EXCAVATION, 83 

hauling is, then, %-ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of haul, wages 
of cart and driver being 25 cts. per hour. 

Cost by Wagons.. — There are three types of four-wheeled 
wagons commonly used by contractors: (1) The ;slat-bottom 
wagon; (2) the bottom-dump wagon; and (3) the end-dump 
wagon. Any farmer's wagon can be made into a slat-bot- 
tom wagon by removing the wagon box and replacing it 
with "slats" of 3 x 6-in. sticks for a bottom, and 2 x 12-in., 
or 2 X 16-in., planks for sides and ends. The bottom-dump, 
or "patent dump-wagon," has a bottom consisting of two 
door,s that swing downward in dumping. The end-dump 
wagon dumps backward like a two-wheeled cart. The best 
makes of this type of wagon are provided with a geared 
device by which the dump-man slides the wagon box bod- 
ily backward over the axle of the Tear wheels until it tips 
and dumps its load. 

The loads that are commonly hauled in a wagon by one 
team are given on page 76. 

To reduce the lost time in leading wagons a common ex- 
pedient is to provide extra wagons which are loaded while 
the teams are on the road to and from the dump. A team 
can be changed from an empty wagon to a loaded wagon 
in 1 to iVz mins. 

Three horses should be used on each wagon far oftener 
than they are used on contract work, as nearly 50% more 
material can be hauled per load than with two horses. In 
the far West, one often sees two teams (four horses) 
hitched to a wagon, even on short haul work. 

One man aided by the driver can dump a slat-bottom 
wagon holding 0.8 cu. yd. in 1% mins., at a cost of 0.4 ct. 
per cu. yd. for the dumpman's time and 1 ct. per cu. yd. for 
lost time of team, wages being 15 cts. per hr. for dump- 
man, and 35 cts. per hr. for the team. It takeis 3 mins. for 
these men to dump a large slat-bottom wagon holding l^/^ 
cu. yds., where the driver removes the seat before dumping 
and replaces it afterward. So that in either case we see 
that the cost of dumping is about l^^ cts. per cu. yd. If a 
binder chain is wound around the wagon box to hold the 
slats close together ,so that no earth will spill through onto 
a street pavement, it takes 5 mins. to dump the wagon. 



U nANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The time required to dump a drop-bottom wagon is 
practically nomimal, and the driver dumps his own wagon. 

It takes about 1 min. for the dumpman and driver to 
dump an end-dump wagon. 

In loading wagons there are usually enough men pro- 
vided in the pit to load 1 cu. yd. into a wagon in 4 or 5 
mins. or less. This is equivalent to 2^^ to 3 cts. per cu. yd. 
for lost team time in the pit, which, added to the lost 
team time at the dump, gives us abont 4 cts. per cu. yd. 
where slat-bottom wagons are used. The cost of the dump- 
man's time will never be much less than V2 ct. per cu. yd.; 
and, if the material is not delivered rapidly, it may be 
much more. 

The cost of exciavating and loading has been given in 
previous pages. If we assume this cost to -average 13 cts. 
per cu. yd., where the earth is plowed, and add 5 cts. for 
lost team time and dumping, we have a fixed cost of 18 
cts. per cu. yd. Then the cost of hauling will depend upon 
the size of the load, and, assuming wages of team at 35 cts. 
per hr., and speed of travel 2% miles an hour while actu- 
ally walking, we have the following rule: 

Rule III. — To a fixed cost of 18 cts. per cu. yd., add i^ ct. per 
cu. yd. per 100 ft. haul when the wagon load is 1 cu. yd. 

For other wagon loads use the following: 

Per cu. yd. per 100 ft. 

Load being 0.8 cu. yd., add 0.66 ct. 

Load being 1,0 cu. yd., add 0.53 ct. 

Load being 1.6 cu. yds., add 0.33 ct. 

Load being 2.0 cu. yds., add 0.26 ct. 

Load being 2.4 cu. yds., add 0.22 ct. 

In round numbers, therefore, for a load of 1 cu. yd. we 
must add i/^ ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. haul, or 28 cts. per 
cu. yd. per mile haul, wages of team being 35 cts. per hr. 

Cost by Drag Scrapers. — ^A drag scraper is a steel scoop, 
not mounted on wheels, for scooping up and transporting 
earth ishort distances, and is drawn by a team. The ordi- 
nary No 2 drag scraper weighs 100 lbs., and is listed in cata- 
logues as holding 5 cu. ft. of earth. The actual average 
load, however, is about 1-9 to 1-7 cu. yd. place measure. 



EARTH EXCAVATION. 35 

In working drag scrapers on short leads there are usually 
three teams traveling in a circle or ellipse of 150 ft. circum- 
ference. One man loads the iscrapers in the pit as they go 
by, and each driver dumps his own scraper. When the gang 
is working properly, the actual speed of the teams is 2% 
miles an hour, or 220 ft. per min., while actually walking; 
and the "lost time'' in loading and 'dumping is % to % min, 
per trip, or, say, S^^ mins. per cu. yd., which is equivalent 
to 2 cts. per cu. yd. for lost team time when team wages are 
35 cts. per hr. The man loading can readily load 1,500 
scrapers per day, or, say, 180 cu. yds., so that the cost of 
loading is about % ct. per cu. yd. The cost of plowing (see 
page 79) will average 1% cts. per cu. yd. As above stated, 
the teams travel in a circle, and, no matter how short the 
*'lead," room must be allowed for turning and manoeuvering 
the teams; this room is approximately 50 ft. at each end of 
the haul, so that we have 100 ft. of extra travel, or nearly 
y2 min. of time for each trip, in addition to the "lead." This 
% min. adds another 2 cts. per cu. yd. Summing up, we 
have the following fixed cost, exclusive of foreman's wages: 

Per cu. yd. 

Lost team time loading <and dumping 2 cts. 

Wages of man loading % '* 

Plowing 1% " 

Extra travel of team in turning, etc 2 " 

'Total fixed cost 6% " 

If the average load is 1-7 cu. yd., hauled at a speed of 
220 ft. per min., the cost of hauling is 4^^ cts. per cu. yd. per 
100 ft. of "lead." Note that this "lead" is measured on a 
straight line from center of pit to center of dump. The 
rule, then, is as follows for "average earth" when team 
wages are 35 cts. per hr.: 

Rule ly.^^To a -fixed cost of 6^^ cts. per cu. yd. add 4% cts, 
per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of "lead.'* 

This is approximately equivalent to 1 et. added for each 
25 ft. of "lead." Thus, If the "lead" is 25 ft., the cost of 
0rag scraper work is 6i/^ + 1, or iVz cts. per cu. yd. 

The cost of foreman's wages is ordinarily about % ct. per 



86 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

cu. yd., land wear on scrapers, etc., will add another % ct. 
per cu. yd. 

The cost of excavatin,g and hauling fairly stiff clay may 
easily be 30% more than the above costs for "average earth." 

Cost by Wheel Scrapers. — ^^The wheel scraper is a de- 
velopment of the drag scraper, being a steel scoop low hung 
between two wheels. The following are common sizes of 
wheelers : 

, Capacity. > 

Weight, Listed, Actual Struck 

lbs. cu. ft. Measure, cu.ft. 

No. 1 340—450 9-10 7^—9 

No.2 475—500 12—13 8% 

No.2>^ 575 14 12 

No.3 625-800 16—17 15K 

The ''listed" capacity is the capacity given in catalogues. 
The ''actual struck measure" capacity is the exact con- 
tents of the bowl when level full ot loose earth, and it 
should be remembered that about one-fifth or 20% should 
be deducted from this to get the actual struck capacity of 
earth measured "in place" before loosening. 

Uarge wheelers, even in light soils, and small wheelers in 
tough soils, seldom leave the pit full of earth, but at the 
back end of the bowl there is usually a wedge-shaped un- 
filled space. The author has found the average load, "place 
measure," carried by wheelers is as follows: 

No. 1 Vs cu. yd. 

No. 2 % " '* 

No. 21/2 Vs " " 

No. 3 Via " " 

A snatch team, to assist in loading, is generally used with 
a No. 2 wheeler, and always with a No. 3 wheeler. 

On long hauls it is advisable to have men with shovels 
to heap the bowl full of earth, using a front gate on the 
wheeler to prevent loss of material in transit. 

The lightest No. 1 wheelers made are to be recommended 
where leads are very short and rises steep, that is, wherever 
drag scrapers are ordinarily used, for they move earth more 
economically than drags. Where soil is very stony, or full 
of roots, drag scrapers are to be preferred, since they lare 



EARTH EXCAVATION. 87 

mOire easily and quickly loaded under such conditions. 
With wheelers, as with drag scrapers, add 50 ft. to the 
actual **lead" for turning and mianoeuvering the teams, 
equivalent to half minute of team time each trip. Another 
half minute is lost in loading and dumping. 

The fixed costs for the three common sizes of wheelers are 
as follows for "average earth," when wages are 15 cts. per 
hr. for laborers and 35 cts. per hr. tor teams: 

Cents per cu. yd. 



No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 

Lost team time loading and dumping. . 1.5 1.2 0.8 

Wages of man loiading 0.8 0.8 1.5 

Plowing 1.7 1.7 1.7 

Extra travel of team in turning, etc... 1.5 1.2 0.7 

Snatch team 1.5 1.5 

Wages of man dumping . . 0.8 

Total, cts. per cu. yd 5.5 6.4 7.0 

Size of load hauled, cu. yds. Ys i/4 Vio 

A snatch team is usually used with No. 2 wheelers, and in 
short-haul woTk there is usually a dump man also. 

In easy soils, I have had one snatch team assist in loading 
300 cu. yds. per day, so that this item may be less than 
above estimated; and under the same conditions another 
Vz ct. per cu. yd. or more may be saved in wages of men 
loading and dumping. There are usually two men required 
to load a No 3 wheeler, which accounts for the higher cost 
of this item in the No. 3 column. 

The cost of wheeler work, based upon the foregoing data, 
is as follows: 

Rule V. — To a fixed cost of 514 cts. per cu. yd. for No. 1 
tcheelers, or 6% cts. for No. 2 wheelers, or 7 cts. for No. 3 
wheelers, add the follovjing per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of ''lead": 
2% cts. for No. 1 wheelers; or 2V5 cts. for No. 2 wheelers; or 
1% cts. for No. 3 wheelers. 

The cost of foreman's wages and repair of wheelers will 
add about 1 ct. more per cu. yd. 



88 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

If the "lead" is 50 ft., and No. 1 wheelers are used, the 
cost is 5% cts. + (Vo X 2% cts.), or 6% cts. (practically 7 cts.) 
per cu. yd., exclusive of foreman's wages. 

Cost by Elevating Graders. — An elevating grader con- 
sists essentially of a four-wheieled truck provided with a 
plow which oasts its furrow upon an endless belt, which ele- 
vates the miaterial and deposits it in wago-ns as fast ais they 
are driven under the belt. For successful operation there 
must be few boulders or roots to stop the plow of the ma- 
chine; and there must be considerable room in which to 
turn the machine, and manoeuver the teams going and 
coming. The machine is adapted to* loading wagons on 
road work, 'but is especially suitable for reservoir work and 
the like. The machine is used in prairie soils for digging 
ditches and conveying the material directly into the road, 
but the material must afterward be leveled with a leveling 
scraper or road machine; and it would seem better practice 
to use the road scraper entirely for this class of grading 
without resort to the elevating grader at all. Claims have 
been made that 1,000 cu. yds. in 10 hours are loaded by the 
grader. The author, however, has never seen a daily aver- 
age of more than 500 cu. yds. place measure loaded by a 
grader operating in easy soil. 

A grader costs about $1,000, and is hauled either by 10 or 
12 horses ot by a 25-HP. traction engine, the latter being 
the more ecoinomical in the long run. It requires 2 men to 
operate the grader, and, where horses are used, 2 or 3 men 
to drive the horses. Where a traction engine is used, 2 
men operate the grader, 1 engineman opeTates the traction 
engine, and it is often necessary to keep a team busy part 
of the time hauling water for the engine, if water is not 
supplied by gravity or by pumps. The traction engine burns 
0.7 ton, or 1,400 lbs., per 10 hrs. To furnish steam there will 
be required not over 8 lbs. of water per lb. of coal, or 0.7 x 
8 — 5.6 tons of water per day. The grader travels about 150 
ft. per min. when hauled by an engine, and it takes li/^ mins. 
to turn around at each end of its run, describing a circle of 
about 50 ft. diameter in turning. It takes about 15 seconds 
to load a wagon with % cu. yd. of earth measured in place, 
when the grader is traveling 150 ft. per minute, so that th^ 



EARTB EXCAVATION. 89 

grader travels 40 ft. in loading a j^-yd. wagon; then it stops 
for about 15 sees, until the next wagon comes up under the 
belt. If three-horse patent dump wagons are used — and no 
other kind should be used with elevating graders — ^the 
wagon load is li/4 cu. yd., and the grader travels about 65 ft. 
to load a wagon. 

I have seen 700 two-horse wagons, holding ^ cu. yd. each, 
loaded per 10-hr. day; and, I am informed, that with good 
management and an easy soil, 700 wagons, holding more 
than 1 cu. yd. each, can be loaded per 10-hr. day. With 
three-horse wagons the average 10-hr. day's output on the 
Chicago Drainage Canal was 500 cu. yds. of top soil. 

Mr. N. Adelbert Brown informs me that an elevating 
grader made by the National Drill & Manufacturing Co., 
of Chicago, was used in grading streets at Canandaigua, 
N. Y. The streets were 60 to 75 ft. wide between property 
lines, and 36 ft. between curbs. A traction engine was 
used to haul the grader, and there was no trouble in turn- 
ing the engine and grader between the walk lines, which 
was easily within 50 ft. of space. "The efficiency of the 
machine was not tested fully, due to a lack of teams; but, 
when teams were available, 50 wagon loads, of l^^ cu. yds. 
each, were readily loaded in an hour. The machine was 
satisfactory in stone and gravel roads and stiff clay, but in 
light sand in some cases refused to elevate." This latter 
is true, however, of all elevating graders in any dry sand 
that will not turn a furrow. 

Fred. T. Ley & Co., of Springfield, Mass., inform me that 
National graders were used by them on electric railway 
work in Central New York State, both with traction eagines 
and with horses. They averaged 400 to 500 cu. yds. loaded 
into wagons per grader per day. 

No matter how short the lead, a team hauling earth from 
a grader must perform a large percentage of waste labor 
following the grader, and this is equivalent to adding about 
400 ft. to the ''lead." If 3 horses and a driver are worth 
$4.50 a day, and the load is li/4 cu. yds., the cost of hauling 
is 0.6 ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of haul; so that the waste 
distance traveled (400 ft. lead) adds 2% cts. per cu. yd. to 
the cost. With wages o'f single horses at $1, and m.en at 



90 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

$1.50, the fixed cost is as follows, with an output of 500 
cu. yds. per 10 hrs.: 

Per cu. yd. 

Lost team time (400 ft. added to "lead") 2.5 cts. 

10 horses on grader and 4 men 3.5 " 

5 men on dump spreading 1.5 " 

Plant rental, say $7.50 per day 1.5 " 

Total 9.0 " 

• The rule is: 

Rule YI. — To a fixed cost of 9 cts. add Vio ct. per cu. yd. per 
100 ft. of lead. 

It will take 6 three-horse wagons to handle the 500 cu. 
yds. per day where the lead is 500 ft. 

It is necessary to spread the earth on the dump to pre- 
vent stalling of the dump wagons, but by using a leveling 
scraper the cost of this item can be reduced. 

A traction-engine outfit will reduce the cost of operating 
the grader somewhat below the above given figures, thus: 

Per day. 
% ton coal, at $3 $2.00 

1 engineman 3.00 

2 grader operators 5.00 

Rental of engine 5.00 

Total, 500 cu. yds., at 3 cts $15.00 

This 3 cts. per cu. yd., it will be seen, is 0.5 ct. less than 
where 10 horses and 4 men operate the grader. 

If it is necessary to pump water by hand and haul it far 
for the traction engine, the cost may easily be increased 
y2 ct. per cu. yd., or more. 

Steam Shovel Data. — ^The size of a steam shovel is 
usually denoted by the capacity of the dipper in cubic yards 
and the weight of the whole machine in tons; both should 
be given, for in a hard material a smaller dipper is used 
than in soft material when working with the same steam 
shovel. The following are some of the standard sizes: 



EARTH EXCAVATION. 91 

Weight, ton-s 35 45 55 65 75 90 

Dipiper, cu. yds 1% 1% 1% 2 2% 3 

Goal in 10 hrs., tons. . % 1 114, I1/2 2 2^/4 

Water in 10 hrs., gals. 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 4,000 4,500 
The price of shovels is approximately $130 per ton. 

A shovel of any size is ,so designed that, whein digging in 
average earth, it can average at least 3 dipperfulls per 
minute, when the dipper arm swings only 90°. Shovels are 
built to run on standard gage track, and in operating a 
shovel it is customary to use rails in 5-ft. lengths, so that 
the shovel cuts 5 ft. into a face before it is shifted ahead. 
The time required to shift ahead may average as low as 3 
mins., and should never average more than 5 mins., but on 
poorly managed work I have often seen 10 mins. consumed 
in shifting the shovel ahead. 

"Traction shovels" weighing 26 tons, or less, may fbe had, 
and they do not require rails to run upon, but are provided 
with broad-tired traction wheels. 

The width of the cut or "swath" excavated by a shovel 
varies from 18 ft. for the smallest shovels to 40 ft. for the 
largest. The height of the face of the cut is usually 15 to 
30 ft. In tough material the face of the cut should not be 
higher than the dipper can reach, that is, 14 to 20 ft. Too 
high a face in treacherous, sliding material is to be avoided, 
for the '.shovel may he buried by a slide. 

The height of the face of the cut has a marked influence 
upon the output of a shovel. If the face is only 6 ft. high 
and 18 ft. wide, there are only 4 cu. yds. per lineal foot of 
cut, or 20 cu. yds. for every 5 lin, ft. of cut. A 1-yd. shovel 
would excavate this in, say, 10 mins.; then, if 5 mins. were 
spent moving forward for the next "bite," there would be 
15 mins. required to excavate 20 cu. yds., and one-third of 
the time would be spent in shifting the shovel. Shallow 
cuts are expensive not only on this account, but because a 
full dipper can not be aVeraged when the height O'f the 
face of the cut becomes much less than one and a half or 
two times the depth of the bucket. 

In addition to the lost time of shifting the shovel, there is 
more or less lost time switching cars up to the shovel. On 



92 HANDBOOK OP CO&T DATA. 

**thorough cut'* work this lost time of switcliing" is greater 
than on "side cut" work. A "thoTOugh cut" is practically a 
huge trench, in which the shovel is working lat the face, so 
that only one or two cars can come up on the track along- 
side of the shovel, the car track being in the bottom of the 
cut. This method of attack should be avoided wherever 
possible. In ''side cut" work a full train of cars can come 
alongside the shovel, one car being loaded after another 
until the train is loaded. 

There are frequently conditions that make it cheaper in 
the end to use wagons instead of cars for hauling the earth 
away. In such cases never use a large dipper, for so much 
earth will spill over the sides of the wagon as to block the 
road and delay the movement of the wagon&, even when a 
snatch team is used. A l^^-yd. ibucket is as large as should 
be used for loading wagons. 

Hauling With Dinkeys.— The ordinary "contractor's 
locomotive," or "dinkey," travels on a track of 3-ft. gage. 
The size of dinkey commonly used weighs 8 short tons, and 
is listed as having a tractive pull of 2,900 lbs. on a level 
track. Whether the actual tractive capacity is exactly 2,900 
I do not know; but it must be approximately that, for any 
locomotive can exert a pull of 25% of the weight on its driv- 
ing wheels even on clean rails. The loads that a dinkey can 
pull, however, are much over-estimated in catalogues, due to 
too low rolling resistances assumed for cars. It is said in 
some of the catalogues that the resistance to traction is 6% 
lbs. per short ton. This rate applies only to the best of 
standard gage railway tracks with heavy rails, well bal- 
lasted, and with heavy wheel loads. On a oontractor's nar- 
row gage, light rail track, the resistance to traction is prob- 
ably not much less than 40 lbs. per ton, and where the 
cars are loaded it is doubtless more, due to the dirt on the 
rails. At any rate, the only careful tests of which I have 
any knowledge are given in my book, "Earthwork and Its 
Cost," page 80, where it will be found that nine cars drawn 
in trains at 41/^ miles an hour showed from 26 to 66 lbs. re^ 
sistance per ton on a level track; the 26 lbs. was only for 
very well lubricated cars drawn in trains of 20 cairs. Short 
trains (2 to 4 cars) showed higher registajjce§ than long 



EARTH EXCAVATION, 9S 

trains, doubtless due to tlie greater effect of irregularities 
in the track, which are more or less counterbalanced in long 
trains. These same tests show that it requires almost twice 
as great a pull to start a car as to keep it in motion. 

The resistance due to gravity is 20 lbs. per short ton 
per 1% of grade; but, of course, the tractive power of a 
locomotive falls off 20 lbs. for every ton of its own weight 
for each 1% of grade. 

Biased upon these data, and upon the assumption that the 
resistance to traction is 40 lbs. per short ton, an 8-ton 
dinkey is capable of hauling the following loads, including 
the weight of the cars: 

Total Tons. 

Level Track 70 

1% grade 46 

2% " 33 

3% " 26 

4% " 21 

5% " 17 

6% " 14 

S% " 10 

Note: On a poor track not even as great loads as the 
above can be hauled. 

Due to the accidents that frequently occur from the 
breaking in two of trains on steep grades, and from the 
running away of engines, it is advisable to avoid using 
grades of more than 6%. 

When heavily loaded, a dinkey travels 5 miles per hr. on 
a straight track; but when lightly loaded, or on a down 
grade, it may run 9 miles an hour. 

The following are the average struck measure capacities 
of the dump cars made by one firm (variations of weight 
of several hundred pounds occur, according to the make) : 

Oapacity, cu. yds. . . 1 iVz 2 2i^ 3 

Weight, lbs 1,700 2,000 2,300 2,800 3,500 

A car seldom averages its struck capacity of earth 
measured "in place," even when the car is heaped full with 
a shovel; for not only are there vacant places in the 



94 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

corners of the car, but the loose earth is 20% to 30% more 
bulky than earth "in place." 

The number of dinkeys required to keep a shovel busy 
can be estimated from the data given. On short hauls 
(1,000 ft. or less) one very often sees only one dinkey serv- 
ing a 1%-yd. shovel. In such cases the dinkey is not heavily 
loaded, so that it can run fast, and by having enough men 
to dump a train of 6 cars in 2 or 3 mins., a fairly good daily 
output of the shovel can be secured. 

In dumping the cars, estimate on the basis of one 3-yd. 
car dumped by each man in 1% to 2 mins. The men 
work in groups of 2 or 3 in dumping the cars, and enough 
men are uisually provided on the dump to dump a train in 
3 mins. 

When two or more dinkeys are serving one shovel, and 
long trains (12 cars) are being used, it would seem that 
very little lost shovel time would occur due to switching in 
an empty train; but, even under favorable conditions, I find 
that 1% to 2 mins. per train are lost in switching. This 
I's another reason why a shovel served by only one dinkey 
makes so good a showing on ishort-haul work. Still lanother 
reason is that at the time the shovel is ishifting forwiard, 
the dinkey can often make its round trip; and on shallow 
face work this shifting of the shovel occurs frequently. 

The method of using a hoisting engine tand cable to move 
the cars is quite common in railroad work, where the hauls 
are short, say 1,000 ft. or less. The track is laid on a 
rather steep grade, at least 3% from the pit to the dump, and 
the cars co^ast down by gravity usually in trains of 4 cars 
holding about 2 cu. yds. each. The hoisting engines pull the 
cars back with a wire rope. A team of horses will have all 
it can do to pull a train o'f 4 isuch cars even on a slight 
down grade to the dump. As a matter of fact, a team that 
is working steadily can not be counted on to pull more 
than two cars holding 3 cu. yds. each, on a level track of 
the kind ordinarily used in contract work. 

The 3-ft. gage track commonly used is laid with rails 
weighing 16 to 40 lbs. per yard of single rail. A 30 or 35- 
Ib. rail makes a track that is not easily kinked under the 
loads, even when ties are spaced 4 ft. centers. A 6 x 6-in. 



EARTH EXCAVATION. 95 

tie, 5 ft. long, is the best size. I have tried 4 x 4-in. ties, 
but they are easily split by the spikes, and are not of 
much value after being used once; whereas the 6 x 6-in. 
ties can be laid 4 to 6 times. After the rails and ties are 
delivered, and the roadway graded, such a track can be 
laid for $100 per mile, or $2 per 100 ft., when wages are 15 
cts. per hr. And the track can be torn up and loaded on 
wagons for $1 per 100 ft.; there being 1 ton of 30-lb. rails, 
and 375 ft. B. M. of 6 x 6-in. x 5-ft. ties per 100 ft. of track. 

In railroad work it is usually necessary to build a trestle 
through which the cars are dumped in making the emhank- 
ment. The trestles usually consist of two posts per bent, 
the posts being of round timber, capiped with a squared 
stick, and sway braced with round timber saplings. Under 
Piling and TimrDerwo-rk the reader will find data on the cost 
of trestlework. 

Summary of the Cost of Steam Shovel Work. — ^As 
above stated, shovels are so designed that about 3 dipper- 
fuls can be averaged per minute when actually loading 
cars; but I find that even with well arranged tracks, and a 
good high face, the .necessary delays of shifting the shovel 
ahead, switching the trains, moving the shovel back to start 
a new swath, etc., keep the shovel idle about half the time. 
Occasionally, under exceptionally favorable conditions, a 
shovel may average 6 or QVz hrs. of actual shoveling per 
10-hr. day. 

The size of the dippers, as listed in catalogues, often refers 
to dippers heaped full of loose earth. I find that the actual 
**place measure'* averages about 30% less than the listed 
capacity of a dipper, for not every dipper goes out full, and 
even if it does the earth is not as compact in the dipper as 
in place. 

On the basis of 3 dippers loaded per minute of actual 
work, we have the following for dippers of different sizes: 

-Dipper. v Output in Cubic Yards. » 



Nominal. Actual (average). Steady Shoveling. 

Yds. Yds. 10 hrs. 5 hrs. 

1 .7 1,260 630 
l>i 1. 1,800 900 

2 1.4 2,520 1,260 
2}^ 1.7 3.060 1.580 



96 BANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

We see that where the shovel is actually shoveling 5 hrs. 
out of the 10 (and this is a good average), a 1-yd. dipper 
will load 630 cu. yds.; a 1%-yd. dipper, 900 cu. yds.; a 2i^ryd. 
dipper, 1,530 cu. yds. These are not merely theoretical 
outputs, foT I have monthly output records that show theise 
averages for each 10-hr. shift. However, the track arrange- 
ment must be such that cars are promptly supplied to the 
shovel, if any such average as 900 cu. yds. per day per li^- 
yd. dipper is to be maintained. 

Taking the lV2-jd, dipper as the common size, we may 
say that in *''average earth," with cars promptly supplied, 
900 cu. yds. are a fair 10-hr. day's work; but if only one 
dinkey is used, the lost time may easily be increased to 
such an extent that 650 cu. yds. become a good day's work 
in "average earth." In hardpan, or exceedingly tough clay, 
the output of a shovel may fall to about ihalf the output in 
"average earth"; that is, 450 cu. yds. per 10-hr. day with a 
l^/^-yd. shovel. 

The size of shovel to select for any given work depends 
upon the yardage of earth in each cut — not upon the total 
yardage in the contract. Use a small 26-ton traction shovel, 
with 1-yd. dipper for small cuts, where moves from one cut 
to another will be frequent. Use a 55 to 65-tO'n shovel with 
1% to 21/^ -yd. dipper where cuts are heavy, and moves not 
very frequent. Use a 75 to 90-tO'n shovel, with 2^^ to 3%-yd. 
dipper, on heavy cuts, where moves are infrequent. Of 
course a heavy shovel with a small dipper is necessary in 
hardpan and very tough material. 

The cost of operating a 55-ton shovel Is ordinarily as 
follows: 

1 foreman $5.00 

1 engineman 4.00 

1 craneman 3.50 

1 fireman 2.00 

6 pitmen, at $1.50 9.00 

1 night watchman 2.50 

2 enginemen on 2 dinkeys, at $3 6.00 

2 trainmen, at $2 4.00 

4 dumipmen, at $1.50 6.00 



EARTH EXCAVATION. 97 

10 trackmen, at $1.50 $15.00 

1 pumpman 2.50 

4 blacksmiths, carpenters, etc., on repairs 12.00 

2 water boys, at $1 2.00 

Supplies for repairs 6.00 

Coal, 1.3 tons for 1 ishovel, at $4 5.20 

Coal, 0.6 ton for 2 dinkeys, at $4 2.40 

Coal, 0.2 ton for 1 pump to supply water 0.80 

Oil and waste 1.00 

15% interest and depreciation on $15,000 plant, dis- 
tributed over 150 days worked per year 15.00 

Total per 10-hr. day $103.90 

The above data are based upon actual records given in 
the author's books, ''Rock Excavation" and *'E!arthwork 
and Its Cost." 

The 10 trackmen are engaged in grading for new tracks, 
track-shifting, etc. The 4 dumpmen must be increased to 
8 dumpmen where the material is not dumped through 
trestles, and where long trains are hauled. The 6 pitmen 
keep the bottom of the pit level for the shovel track, shift 
the sections of shovel track, clean away the spilled material 
from the car track, etc. Under favorable conditions the 
number of trackmen may be very much reduced; for ex- 
ample in heavy cuts requiring infrequent shifting of tracks, 
and where tracks are well laid. 

If the daily output of the l^^-yd. shovel is 900 cu. yds., the 
cost is slightly less than 12 cts. per cu. yd. If tough mate- 
rial and unfavorable conditions reduce the output to 600 
cu. yds., the cost is 17 cts. per cu. yd. If the hauls are very 
long, and if grades are not favorable, more than 2 dinkeys 
may be required. The number can be estimated from the 
data previously given. 

References. — For further data on the cost of earth ex- 
cavation, the reader is referred to the author's book, 
"Earthwork and Its Co'st," where he will find not only fuller 
discussions and data relating to the common methods of 
excavation, but methods and costs of dredging, hydraulick- 



98 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

ing, excavating with power scrapers, conveying on inclines, 
etc. 

Other data on earthwork will be found in this ''Handbook 
of Cost Data," under the sections on Roads, Sewers, Water- 
works, and Miscellanies, for which consult the index under 
Earthwork. 



SECTION III. 

COST OP ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING AND 
CRUSHING. 

Weight and Voids.— Civil engineers commonly measure 
rock excavation by the cubic yard in place before loosening, 
whereas mining engineers generally use the ton of 2,000 
pounds as the unit ot rock and ore measurement. In view 
of this fact it would he well were the specific gravity of 
the rock given by every engineer who publishes data on 
any particular kind of rock excavation or mining. Then, 
too, it often happens that broken rock is purchased by the 
ton even for civil engineering work, or by the cord of loosely 
piled rubble for architectural work, thus emphasizing the 
importance O'f stating not only the specific gravity but the 
percentage of voids. 

The specific gravity of any material is the quotient found 
by dividing its weight by the weight of an equal bulk of 
water. Water, therefore, has a specific gravity of 1; a 
cubic foot of any substance like granite, having a specific 
gravity of 2.65, weighs 2.65 times as much as a cubic foot 
of water. A cubic foot of water weighs 62.355 lbs., or prac- 
tically 62.4 lbs.; hence a cubic foot of solid granite weighs, 
62.4 X 2.65 = 165.3 lbs. 

Wihen any rock is crushed or broken into fragments of 
tolerably uniform size it increases in bulk, and is found to 
have 35% to 55% voids or inter-spaces, depending upon the 
uniformity of the fragments and their angularity. Rounded 
fragments, like pebbles, pack more closely together than 
sharp-edged or angular fragments. A tumbler full of bird 
shot has about 36% voids, and it is possible to hand-pack 
marbles of uniform size so that the voids are only 26%. 
Obviously, if small 'fragments of stone are mixed with large 
fragments, the voids are reduced. Pit sand ordinarily has 
35 to 40% voids. Hard broken stone from a rock crusher 



100 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

has about 35% voids if all sizes are mixed and slightly 
shaken down in a box; whereas, if it is screened into sev- 
eral sizes, each size has about 45 to 48% voids. 

A soft and friable rock like shale breaks into fragments 
having a great range in size, from large chunks down to 
dust; and, as a consequence, such soft broken rocks have a 
much lower percentage of voids than the tougher rocks. 

The following table shows the swelling of rock upon 
breaking: 

Voids. 30% 35% 40% 455^ 50% 55^ 

Cu. yds. b^ oken rock from 
1 cu. yd. solid rock 1.43 1.54 1.67 1.82 2.00 2.22 

Hard rock when blasted out in large chunks and thrown 
into cars or skips may ordinarily be assumed tO' have from 
40 to 45% voids, hence 1 cu. yd. of hard solid rock ordi- 
narily makes 1.67 tO' 1.82 cu. yds. of broken or crushed 
rock. 

Tables of specific gravity and weight of different kinds 
of rock will be found in the section on Concrete. 

Measurement of Rock. — Rock excavation is commonly 
measured in place before loosening, and paid for by the 
cubic yard of actual excavation; but, in sewer work and in 
tunnel work, if the contractor excavates beyond certain 
"neat lines" shown in the blue-prints, no payment is made, 
unless the specifications explicitly provide for payment for 
excavation beyond these "neat lines." In trench work, 
for example, a contractor often has to excavate from 6 to 
18 ins. below the grade shown in the blue-print, because it 
costs less to do so than to work too close to the grade and 
afterward break off projecting knobs with a bull-point or 
otherwise. The same is true of shallow excavation, or skim- 
ming work, in road construction and the like. 

In examining specifications care should also be taken to 
note whether mention is made of rock slips or falls; for it 
often happens that after blasting to the neat lines a huge 
slide of rock occurs, possibly filling the entire excavation. 
Who is to stand the cost of removing this slide? If it is 
prescribed that the contractor shall, then he ishould study 
the dip of the rock and its character with this question of 
sliding in mind. 



ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC, 101 

A perch of masonry is commonly taken as being 25 cu. ft. 
(or nearly 1 cu. yd.), but the original perch was- a wall 
12 ins. high, 18 ins. wide, and a rod (16i/^ ft.) long, making 
24% cu. ft. In certain localities the "perch" is taken as 
being only 22 cu, ft., but in most places in this country a 
perch is only 16% cu. ft. These facts the oontractor should 
know, for he must often deal with CLuarrymen who will not 
sell rock by the cubic yard. 

In some localities stone for building is sold by the cord. 
Sedimentary rock quarried in slabs that are corded up care- 
fully by hand may have 30% or less voids, which makes it 
evident that a contractor in buying rock by the cord should 
be careful to prescribe that it be packed closely and not 
dumped in piles helter skelter before measurement. In 
buying rock by the "cord" there is another precaution to 
be taken, and that is to specify how many cubic feet con- 
stitute a cord. A cord of wood is 4 x 4 x 8 = 128 cu. ft, 
but a "cord" of stone is often 1 x 4 x 8 = 32 cu. ft. Rock 
is often purchased by the ton of 2,000 lbs.; but to avoid 
lawsuits it is wise to define the word "ton" in any written 
or verbal contract, for a ton means 2,240 lbs. in some local- 
ities. 

If crushed stone for macadam or ballast is purchased by 
the cubic yard measured loose, the precaution of stating 
where the measurement is to be made should always be 
taken. I have made measurements of wagon loads of broken 
stone after loading from chutes at the bins, and again after 
traveling for half a mile or more. A surprising shaking 
down, or settlement, always takes place, ordinarily making 
a reduction in volume of 10%. 

There is another caution to be taken in examining specifi- 
cations and in buying stone for concrete. Note whether or 
not the specification requires that the largest permissible 
stone shall pass in every direction through a ring of, say, 
2^ ins. diameter. I have italicized the words "in every 
direction" because few engineers realize and few contractors 
stop to think that this virtually means the use of a much 
smaller opening in the screen than the one specified, in 
this case smaller than 2^^ ins. In screening stone in a 
rotary screen, long narrow fragments will drop through a 



102 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

2%--in. hole, yet many of these fragments will not pass "in 
every direction" through a 2i/^-in. hole. On this account, 
small though the matter seems, I once had more than 1,000 
€U. yds. of stone rejected by an inspector whO' found that 
he could not pass through a ring some of the long -fragments 
when laid crosswise. 

There are two ways of designating the sizes of stone after 
screening. One is to designate the stone according to the 
diameter of the screen hole through which it has passed; 
in this case stone that has passed a 23^-in. hole is called 
"two and a half inch stone." Another, and very common 
way, is to take the diameter of the screen hole through 
which the stone did not pass, add it to the diameter of the 
screen hole through which the stone did pass, divide this 
sum by two, and call this average diameter the size of the 
stone. iSuppose, for example, that a stone crusher were pro- 
vided with la rotary screen having three sections of per- 
forated metal, the holes in the first section being %-in. 
diameter, the holes in the second section l^/^-in., and in the 
third sectioin 2%-in. Then the average size of the stone that 
passes the %-in. holes is %-in. stone (assuming it to run 
from dust to %-in.) The average size of the stone that 
passes the 1%-in. holes but does not pass the %-in. holes, is 
{V/2 + %) -T- 2, or 1%-in., and it may be called ll^-in. stone. 
In like manner the stone between li/^-in. and 2i^-in. may 
be called 2-in. stone. This rule is not followed strictly by 
the manufacturers of crushed stone, so it is always neces- 
sary to inquire exactly what they mean; when they speak 
of stone of a certain size. Thus the Rockland Lake Trap 
Oo. have the following schedule of commercial sizes: 

Diameter of holes in screen. Inches 4)i 3X 2X 1x5 % 

Commercial sizes of stone, inches B)4 JX 1>^ X )4 

Therefore, when "2i/^-inch stone" is ordered from this 
company, they ship a product that ranges from 2iy4 ins. to 
3% ins. in size — indeed, some of the stone fragments are 
even larger than 3% ins. in certain directions, for, as above 
stated, a long, narrow stone may pass through a screen. 

Kinds of Hand Drills. — Drilling holes in rock by hand 
may be effected in three ways: (1) By a rotary drill or 
auger; (2) by a churn-drill; (3) by a hammer-drill, or 



ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 103 

"jumper" drill, struck with a hammer. A rock auger oper- 
ated by hand is used only in very soft rock or coal. 

A churn-drill, as its name implies, is raised and allowed 
to drop, or is hurled against the rock. For shallow holes of 
small diameter it is neces'sary to give a churn-drill addi- 
tional weight, which is done by welding a ball of wrought 
iron to the center of the drill shank, making a ball-drill. A 
ball-drill is usually provided with a cutting bit at each end, 
and is operated by one man. For deep drilling, that is, for 
holes more than about 2^^ or 3 ft. deep, an ordinary churn- 
drill is used, operated by one man for shallow work, two 
men for deeper work, and three or even four men for very 
deep holes where the weight of metal becomes consider- 
able. 

The churn-drill in the hands of a skilled driller m the 
most effective type of hand drill for vertical holes; and a 
little theory is not without its practical value in seeking the 
reason for the effectiveness of the 'churn-drill. Much of the 
energy of the blow of a hammer is lost in the form of heat 
at the head of the drill. This loss does not occur with the 
churn-drill. It takes some skill to start a hole with a ball- 
drill and to keep it plumb; but the time spent in acquiring 
this skill is repaid many times over if quarry operations 
with hand drills are to he moderately extensive. 

The effect of the size of the hole upon the speed of drill- 
ing appears never to have been carefully determined. One 
authority says that to double the diameter of the hole de- 
creases the speed of drilling by one-half. Another authority 
thinks that doubling the diameter divides the speed by four. 
According to the first authority, if a man could drill 12 ft. 
of 1-in. hole in a shift, he could drill only 6 ft. of 2-in. hole 
in a shift- According to the second authority, only 3 ft. of 
2-in. hole could be drilled per shift. 

Cost of Hammer Drilling. — The diameter of the hole, 
the angle at which the hole is driven and the presence or 
absence of water in the hole, all affect the cost of drilling 
by hand. The method of drilling with hammer-drills or 
with churn-drills is also an important factor in the cost. 
Obviously the character of the rock is the most important 
factor; but unfortuuately very few reliably records of cost 



104 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

of drilling in different kinds of rock are to be found. From 
some observations on hammer drilling with a ly^-in. start- 
ing bit I have found that where one man is holding the drill 
vertically and two men are striking, the rate of drilling a 
6-ft hole is as follows: 

Ft. in Cost per ft., 
10 hrs. cts. 

Granite 7 75 

Trap (basalt) 11 48 

Limestone 16 33 

The cost is based upon a wage rate of $1.75 per 9-hr. day 
per man; and does not include the cost of sharpening drills, 
which may be taken at 5 to 8 cts. per ft. more. 

I have found that a man drilling plug and feather holes 
in granite, each hole being %-in. diam. by 2V2 ins. deep, will 
average one hole in 5 mins., including the time of cleaning 
out holes, the driller striking about 200 blows in drilling the 
hoile. No water is used in drilling these shallow holes, for 
the dust is readily and quickly cleaned out with a little 
wooden spoon. In 8 hrs. of steady work about 100 holes 
;can be drilled, which is about 21 ft. of %-in. hole. But in 
plug and feather work part of the time is spent in selecting 
rock, driving the plugs, etc., so that 50 or 60 holes drilled 
and plugged and feathered are generally counted a fair 
day's work. 

I am indebted to Mr. John B. Hobson for the following 
data of hammer drilling in a British Columbia mine: Rock 
was augite diorite and firm red porphyry; starting bit, 1% 
ins.; finishing bit, 1% ins.; %-in. steel; holes, 6 ft. deep; 
8-lb. hammer. Two miners (one holding drill and one strik- 
ing) averaged 14.8 ft. per 10-hr. shift. With wages at $2 a 
day the cost was nearly 28 cts. per ft. of hole. 

Mr. Frank Nicholson states that in mining chalcopyrite in 
magnesian limestone at St. Genevieve, Mo., a day's work 
for a striker and a holder was 12 ft. of hole drilled. The 
drills had 1%-in. starting bits, %-in. octagon steel being 
used. 

In excavating hard porphyry for the rock-fill dam at Otay, 
Cal., Mr. W. S. Russell states that a good day's work for 



BOCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC, 105 

three men drilling (one holding and two striking) was 6 to 
8 ft. of hole, costing about 80 cts. per ft. of hole drilled. The 
holes were drilled 20 ft. deep vertically and sprung. This 
was an unusual depth of hole for hammer drilling, and ac- 
counts for the high cost per foot. It shows also how uneco- 
nomic is hammer drilling in deep vertical holes compared 
with churn drilling. 

In driving a small (3 x 4i/^-ft.) tunnel through tough sand- 
stone one driller averaged 4 to 5 holes, each 1^ ft. deep, 
per 8-hr. shift, using %-in. bit for the starter; and, upon 
cleaning up, the advance was 1 ft. per shift for one man. 
Each hole was charged with half a stick of 75% dynamite. 

Cost of Churn Drilling. — I am indebted to Mr. W. M. 
Douglass, of the firm of Douglass Bros., contractors, for the 
following data on drilling with churn-drills, for railroad 
work in western Ohio. Three drillers were used for putting 
down the first 18 ft. of hole in blue sandstone the first day 
(10 hrs.), and four men were used for putting down the last 
12 ft. of hole, so that it required 70 hrs. of labor at 15 cts. 
per hr., or $10.50, for a 30-ft. hole, making the cost 35 cts. 
per ft. In brown sandstone it required 70 to 80 hrs. labor 
to put down 30 ft. The drill holes were 2% ins. at top and 
iVz ins. at bottom. Drilling with steam drills in this same 
stone, holes 20 ft. deep, cost 12 cts. per ft, including every- 
thing except interest, depreciation and drill sharpening. 
The cost of hand drilling agrees very closely with my own 
records of similar work in Pennsylvania. 

Trautwine gives the following rates of drilling 3-ft. ver- 
tical holes, starting with a 1%-in. bit, one man drilling with 
a churn-drill, shift 10 hrs. long: 

'Solid quartz 4 ft. in 10 hrs. 

Tough hornblend 6 ** ** ** 

Granite or gneiss 7.5 " " " " 

Limestone 8.5 " " " " 

Sandstone 9.5 " " " " 

It should be observed that the holes in this case are 
shallow (3 ft), and the diameter (1% ins.) is large for such 
shallow holes, indicating that Trautwine's data applied to 
rock excavation where black powder was used. 



106 HA^WBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Sizes of Air Drills. — The size of an air drill is denoted 
by the inner diameter of its air or steam cylinder; thus a 
3^ -in. air drill is one having a cylinder 3^ ins. diam. 

The smallest sizes, 2% -in. drill, is called a "baby drill/* 
or a one-man drill — the latter name being given to the drill 
-because it can readily be moved about and set up by one 
man. For narrow work in mines the ibaby drill is adapted. 
It is also used for drilling plug and feather holes, and 
might often be used profitably for shallow cuts and trenches. 
The most commonly used sizes for general contract work, 
tunneling and mining are the 3%-in. and the 3%-in. drills. 
The drill is churned back and forth in the hole by com- 
pressed air or steam power, and after each stroke it is me- 
chanically turned a fraction of a circle. The drill is fed 
forward by hand, a crank at the end of a feed-screw being 
used for this purpose. A longer drill is inserted every 2 ft. 
in depth of hole, for 2 ft. is the limit of feed of the ordinary 
feed screw used. 

Test of Air Consumption at the Rose Deep Mine. — 

A 6-hr. run at the Rose Deep Mine, South Africa, showed 
the following results for 31 drills: The compressed air aver- 
aged 70 lbs. per sq. in. and each 3^/4 -in. drill consumed 81 
cu. ft. of free air per minute, including all leakage of pipes 
(there was less leakage than is- common in mines). Each 
drill required 43 lbs. of coal per hour, to supply this com- 
pressed air; and each 3.4 lbs. of coal developed 1 HP. per 
hour, by the indicator on the steam engine, evaporaling 
6.74 lbs. of water from 212° F. The average horse-power of 
the compressor engine was 12.7 I. HP. per drill; but all the 
drillers were trying to make a record, and accomplished in 
6 hrs. an amount of drilling that ordinarily took 8 hrs. 
The power plant was a vertical King-Reidler Compound 
Steam and Double Stage Air Compressor, with two boilers 
of the horizontal return tubular type. 

Tables of Air Consumption in Catalogues. — ^Table I. 
is given in the catalogue of one of the well-known drill 
manufacturers, and is said to be based upon actual tests of 
single drills running contlOTPusly without stops for chang- 
ing hits^ etc, 



ROCK EXCAYATIOl^I, QUARRYING, ETC. 107 



TABLE I.— Cubic Feet of Free Air per Minute Required to Run a One- 
Drill Plant. 

6 

<D >j 

00 . Diameter of Drill Cylinder. . 



^fi 2" 2X" 2K" 2X" 3" S%'' 3xV' 3M" 3>i" 3^" 4^" 5" 5>^" 

60 50 60 68 82 90 95 97 100 108 118 180 150 164 

70 66 68 77 93 102 108 110 113 124 129 147 170 181 

80 63 76 86 104 114 120 123 127 131 148 164 190 207 

90 70 84 05 115 126 133 136 141 152 159 182 210 230 

100 77 92 104 126 138 146 149 154 166 174 199 240 252 

When more than one drill is to be supplied from the 
same air com-pressor the manufacturers advise multiplying 
the quantities given in Table I. by the factors given in 
Table II. 

TABLE IL 
Number of drills.. 1 2 5 10 15 20 30 40 70 
Multiply value in 

Table I. by ... . 1 1.8 4.1 7.1 9.5 11.7 15.8 21.4 33.2 

Tables similar to these are given by other manufacturers. 
In answer to letters of inquiry I have been informed that 
such tables are "based upon experience in a large number 
of mines." 

The actual drilling time, that is, the time when the drill 
is actually striking blows, is seldom over 70%, and often 
not more than 40% of the length of the shift. Knowing the 
conditions of work, the reader will be able (with the aid of 
data given subsequently) to predict approximately the per 
cent, of actual drilling time. Then, if there are more than, 
say, 10 drills, he can multiply the air consumption of one 
drill (when actually drilling) by the percentage of drilling 
time in the shift, and the product will be the average air 
consumption of each drill. If there are less than about 10 
drills it will not be safe to figure so closely, because the 
fewer the drills operated from one compre'ssor, the more 
likely is it that all or nearly all of them will be using air 
at the same time. The larger the number of drills, on the 
other hand, the more certain it is that some will be changing 
bits while others are drilling, and thus draw a steady, aver- 
age amount of air from the compressor. 

Steam Consumption.— When steam is piped directly 



108 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

« 

from the boiler into a drill, practically the same number of 
cubic feet of steam are consumed as of cubic feet of com- 
pressed air. We may assume that a cubic foot of steam will 
do practically the same work in a drill as a cubic foot of 
compressed air at the same pressure, because neither the 
steam nor the air acts to any great extent expansively in a 
drill cylinder, due to the late cut off. This being so; 0.21 lb. 
of steam is equivalent to 6 cu. ft. of free air, or 1 lb. of 
steam is equivalent to nearly 30 cu. ft. of free air, or 1 cu. ft. 
of free air is equivalent to 0.035 lbs. steam^ — ^all at the same 
pressure of 75 lbs. per sq. in. If a drill consumes at the 
rate of 100 cu. ft. of free air per min., it will consume 6,000 
cu. ft. of free air in an hour. If it were using steam in its 
cylinder instead of air (at 75 lbs. pressure), it would, there- 
fore, consume 6,000 x 0.035 == 210 lbs. of steam (at 75 lbs. 
pressure) in an hour. 

When coal is burned under a boiler 'a large percentage of 
its heat passes up the chimney in the gases and is lost; and 
in addition to this loss the boiler itself radiates heat con- 
stantly. The greater part of the loss occurs in the heat that 
goes up the chimney. In large, well designed boilers, prop- 
erly protected iby asbestos or similar covering, the coal 
burned will develop steam to a-bout 80% of the full heat 
value of the fuel; the efficiency of the boiler and furnace is 
then 80%. In locomotive boilers, where forced draft is used, 
firing not of the best and 'boiler exposed to moving air, the 
efllciency is often as low as 45%. The efficiency of a good 
boiler of moderate size (100 HP.), well housed, is ordi- 
narily about 75%. A small (20 HP.) boiler exposed to the 
wind has an efficiency of about 60% when not forced. If a 
small boiler is used to run one drill, the boiler must always 
have up enough steam to keep the drill running at nearly 
full capacity; but when the drill is stopped, during the 
changing of bits, moving, etc., there is a waste of steam, 
because the period of stoppage is not long enough to per- 
mit the fireman to make any material change in the firing 
and in the draft. 

When a 54-in. drill is operated hy steam from a small 
boiler, about 600 lbs. of coal are ordinarily required per 
IQ-hr. shift. But if a number of drills are supplied from a 



ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 109 

large, well lagged boiler, through steam pipes that are also 
lagged with asbestos covering, it is possible to cut down 
the coal consumption to 300 lbs. or less per drill per 
10 hrs. 

Gasoline Air Compressors. — ^Where not more than three 
or four drills are to be operated, probably no power can 
equal compressed air generated by gasoline. One pint of 
gasoline per hour per brake horse-power (B. HP.) of gaso- 
line engine may be counted upon as the average consump- 
tion. It will require about 12 HP. to compress air for each 
drill (31/4-in. size); hence 12 pints, or li^ gals, of gasoline 
will be required per hour per drill while actually drilling. 
Since gasoline air compressors are self-regulating, when the 
drill is not using air very little gasoline is burned by ithe 
gasoline engine driving the compressor. If the drill is actu- 
ally drilling two-thirds of the working shift, we may safely 
count upon using about 1 gal. of gasoline per hour of shift 
per drill, or 8 gals, per shift 8 hrs. long. If gasoline is worth 
15 cts. per gal., delivered at the engine, one drill consumes 
only $1.20 worth of gasoline per shift of 8 hrs. A gasoline 
compressor possesses other very important economic ad- 
vantages over a small steam-driven plant. First, there is 
the saving in wagQS of firemen; for, once started, a gaso- 
line engine runs itself. Second, there is the saving in 
hauling or pumping of water and the hauling of fuel. 
Third, the cost of gasoline is often less than the cost of coal 
for operating a small plant. 

Percentage of Lost Time in Drilling. — In operating 
machines of any kind the percentage of lost time is a factor 
that should receive the most careful consideration. The 
most serious loss of time in machine drilling is the time 
lost in changing bits and pumping out the hole; for, with a 
2-ft. feed screw (which is the ordinary length), a new drill 
must be inserted for every 2 ft. of hole drilled. It takes from 

4 to 16 minutes to drill 2 ft. of hole, counting the actual time 
that the drill is striking, and it ordinarily takes from 2 to 

5 minutes to change bits and pump out the hole. I have of- 
ten timed the work, however, where 9 minutes were spent in 
drilling, followed by 9 minutes lost by lazy drillers in chang- 
ing bits. Counting no other time losses, then, half the avail- 



110 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

aible time was lost in the operation of changing bits. When 
shallow holes (6 ft. or less), are to be drilled, the drill steel 
is light, and there is often little or no sludge pumping to 
be done. In such cases it is possible for the driller and his 
helper to change bits in 1 minute, or eyen less when they 
are rushing the work. So far as the changing of bits is 
concerned, men should be made to work with a vim. When 
men have to exercise their muscles incessantly for 8 or 
10 hours there is reason in taking a slow, steady gait, but 
in machine work, muscular exercise is intermittent, and 
should be vigorous. 

Next in importance to the time lost in changing bits is 
the time lost in shifting the machine from hole to hole. 
To move a tripod from one hole to the next and set up 
again ready to drill seldom consumes less than 7 minutes, 
even when the two men are working rapidly, when the dis- 
tance to move is short, and when the rock floor is level and 
soft. When, however, the rock floor is irregular and hard, 
requiring the vigorous use of gad and pick, not only in 
making holes for the tripod leg points to rest in, but re- 
quiring, also, some little time in squaring up a face for the 
bit to strike upon, the two men may consume 'from 30 to 45 
minutes, shifting the machine and setting up, if they work 
deliberately. In such cases it is advisable to have laborers 
working ahead of the drillers preparing the face of the rock, 
leveling the site of the hole, removing loose rock, etc. One 
can see clearly what a great saving in time may thereby 
be effected; yet, this simple expedient is seldom adopted; 
but the driller and his helper are usually left to themselves 
in preparing the ground for each new set up. Excluding the 
time required to change bits for the new hole, we may say 
that two men can ordinarily make a new set up with a tripod 
in 12 to 15 minutes, if they work rapidly. 

Rule for Estimating Feet Drilled per Shift. — ^We are 

now possessed of sufficient data to enable us to formulate 
a rule whereby the number of feet drilled per shift, under 
given conditions, may be predicted. I will not go into the 
method that I used in deducing the following rule, which is 
strictly correct, for the method is one of simple arithmetic. 
The rule is: 



ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. Ill 

To find the number of feet of hole drilled per shift divide 
the total number of working minutes in the shift by the 
sum of the following quantities: The number of minutes of 
actual drilling required to drill one foot of hole, plus the 
average number of minutes required to change bits divided 
iby the length of the feed screw in feet, plus the average 
number of minutes required to shift the machine from hole 
to hole divided by the depth of the hole in feet. 

Suppose, for example, the shift is 10 hrs. long, that is, 
600 mins.; that it requires 5 mins. to drill 1 ft. of the rock; 
that it requires 4 mins. to change ibits and clean hole; that 
the feed screw is 2 ft. long; that the machine can be shifted 
from hole to hole in 16 mins.; and that each hole is 8 ft. 
deep. Then according to the rule we have: The number of 

4 16 
feet of hole per shift is 600 -f- (5 + — + — ), which is equiva- 

2 8 

lent to 600 -^ 9, or 66% ft. drilled per 10-hr. shift. 

For those who can use simple algebraic formulas the 
above rule is much more compactly expressed in the follow- 
ing formula: 

S 

N = 

m s 

r + — + — 

f D 

N = number of feet drilled per shift. 

S = length of working time of shift in minutes = 600 for 
a 10-hr. shift when no time is lost by blasts, breakdowns, 
etc. 

r = number of minutes of actual drilling required to drill 
1 ft. of the rock. 

m = number of minutes required to crank up, change 
drills, pump out hole and crank down, 
m = 3 to 4 mins. ordinarily. 

f = length of feed screw, in ft., ranging from 1^/4 ft. in 
"baby" drills to 2% ft. in largest drills, but ordinarily 2 ft. 

s = number of minutes required to shift machine from 
one hole to the next, including the time of chipping and 
starting the new hole, but not including the time of crank- 



112 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

ing up and cranking down. S ranges from 5 mins. for very 
rapid shifting on level rock, to 40 mins. for very slow shift- 
ing on irregular rock. 

D = depth of hole in ft. 

Even a casual study of the foregoing formula, or rule, 
must impress the practical man with the importance of the 
lost time elements in machine drilling; consequently of the 
value of timing the operations of changing bits and moving 
machines when the men do not know that they are being 
timed. Another 'feature that stands out strikingly is the 
reduced output of a drill working in a shallow hole. Let 
the reader solve a -few problems, assuming first an average 
depth of hole of 16 'ft. and finally an average depth of only 
2 ft. (such ais occurs often in the skimming work in road 
building), and he will never make the blunder of the con- 
tractor who bid the same price for rock excavation on the 
2-ft. deepening of the Erie Canal as had been ibid for the 
36-ft. excavation on the Chicago Canal. 

If we assume that the shift is 10-hrs. long; that the rate 
of drilling is 1 ft. in 5 mins.; that it takes 4 mins. to change 
bits and pump out the hole at each change of bits; that the 
feed screw is 2 ft. long; and that it takes 15 mins. to shift 
from one hole to the next; by applying the rule we obtain 
the following results: 

Depth of hole, ft 1 2 3 5 10 15 20 

Feet drilled in 10 hrs 27 41 50 60 70 75 80 

When drillers are lazy they may readily consume 8 mins. 
in changing bits and pumping out the hole each time. With 
all conditions the same as before, excepting that 8 mins. are 
consumed in changing bits, we have the following results: 

Depth of hole, ft 1 2 3 5 10 15 20 

Feet drilled in 10 hrs 25 36 43 50 57 60 62 

It will be seen thaJt in deep hole drilling 20% decreased 
efficiency results from just a little laziness in changing bits, 
under the conditions assumed; and in softer rocks the per- 
centage of decreased efficiency is much greater. Where the 
holes are shallow the time involved in shifting from one 
hole to the next becomes an important factor. Assuming 



ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 113 

that the conditions are the same as in the first instance, 
except that 30 mins. are consumed in shifting from one hole 
to the next, then we have the following results: 

Depth of hole, ft 1 2 3 5 10 15 20 

Feet drilled in 10 hrs 16 27 35 46 60 67 70 

Rates of Drilling in Different Rocks. — Unfortunately 
no published record exists showing rates of drilling in dif- 
ferent kinds of rock with given air or steam pressures and 
given sizes of drill bits. Such scattering records as are to 
be found merely give the feet of hole drilled per shift. From 
data obtained by observation I have compiled the following 
table for drilling with 3%-in. machines using air or steam 
at 70 lbs. pressure, starting bit about 2% ins. and finishing 
bit about 1% ins.: 

Time to drill 1 ft. 

Soft sandstones, Hmestones, etc 3 mins. 

Medium, ditto 4 " 

Hard granites, hard sandstones, etc 5 " 

Very hard traps, granites, etc 6 to 8 ** 

Very soft shales, and other rocks that 
make sludge rapidly and when a water 
jet is not used 8 to 10 " 

That the inexperienced reader may have a good general 
conception of what constitutes a day's work under ordinary 
conditions the following summary may be of benefit: In 
drilling vertical holes, with the drill on a tripod, the holes 
being from 10 to 20 ft. deep, shift 10 hrs. long, I have found 
that in the hard "granite" of the Adirondack Mts., N. Y., 
48 ft. is a fair 10-hr. day's work. In the granites of Maine 
and Massachusetts 45 to 50 ft. is a day's work. In New 
York City, where the rock is mica schist, deep holes are 
drilled at the rate of 60 to 70 ft. per 10-hr. shift by men will- 
ing to work, but 40 to 50 is nearer the average of union 
drillers. In the very hard trap rock of the Hudson River 
40 ft. is considered a fair day's work. In the soft red sand- 
stone of northern New Jersey 90 ft. are readily drilled per 
day wherever the rock is not so seamy as to cause lost time 
by the sticking of the bit; in fact, I have records showing 



114 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

110 ft. per 10-hr. shift in this rock. In the hard limestone 
near Rochester my records show ahout 70 ft. per 10-hr. shift. 
In the limestone on the Chicago Drainage Canal 70 to 80 ft. 
was a 10-hr. day's work. In the hard syenite of Douglass 
Island, in open pit work, and where it is difficult to make 
set-ups, 36 ft. is now the average per 10-hr. day. In the 
limestone near Windmill Pt., Ontario, 3%-in. drills average 
75 ft. a day (holes 18 ft. deep); 2%-in. drills, 60 ft. a day, and 
"bahy" drills, 37 ft. a day. 

The foregoing examples all apply to comparatively deep 
vertical holes, in open excavation. In tunnel work there is 
no reason why a drill should not do about the same work 
per shift, were there *no delays in timbering, mucking, wait- 
ing for gases to clear, etc. Such delays, however, often re- 
duce the drill footage very much. 

Cost of Skarpening Bits.— One hlacksmith (with a 
helper) will sharpen about 140 bits a day, and under ordi- 
nary conditions will keep 5 to 7 drills supplied with sharp 
bits. On average rock a bit must be sharpened for every 
2 ft. of hole; in very soft rock a bit for every 4 ft., and in. 
very hard rock a bit for every l^^ ft. of hole. 

Cost of Drill Repairs. — Mr. Thomas Dennis, agent of the 
Adventure Consolidated Copper Co., Hancock, Mich., has 
kindly furnished the following data of the average monthly 
cost of keeping a drill in repair: 

(Supplies for repairs . $1.31 

Machinist labor 8.45 

Blacksmith labor 1.60 

Total repair charge per month $11.36 

The number of drills in the shop at any one time is about 
15 per cent, of the total number. This low cost is based 
upon work where a large number of drills are used and well 
handled by the users. 

I am indebted to Mr. Josiah Bond, mining engineer, for 
the statement that the cost of repairs averages 50 cts. per 
drill per shift in mines where a few drills are operated and 
renewal parts purchased from the manufacturers. In open 
cut work my experience is that 75 cts^ per drill per shift is 



ROCK EJCATATION, QVARRJn'G, ETC, 115 

a fair allowance for renewals and repairs. In the gold 
mines of South Africa, where each drill works two shifts per 
day, the cost of drill repairs is $300 per drill per year; while 
the first cost of a 3i/4-in. drill with bar is $185, according 
to a recent report of the Government Mine Inspector. 

Cost of Operating Drills. — When operating a single 
(31/4-in.) drill supplied hy steam from a small portable 
boiler, I find the cost is usually as follows for a 10-hr. shift: 

1 drill runner $3.00 

1 drill helper 1.75 

1 fireman 2.00 

660 lbs. of coal (0.3 ton at $3) 90 

Water, if hauled, say 75 

Hauling and sharpening 30 bits (incl. new 

steel) at 4 cts 1.20 

Repairs to drill and hose renewals 75 

Total per 10 hrs. $10.35 

The foregoing is merely an example, based, however, upoii 
several different jobs; but in each case the accessibility of a 
blacksmith, the nearness to water, the price of coal de- 
livered at the boiler, etc., must be determined before an 
accurate estimate can be made. If 4 drills, for example, 
are to be operated from the same boiler, the fuel bill will be 
somewhat reduced even if the pipes are not covered with 
asbestos, and of course the wages of the fireman will be dis- 
tributed over 4 drills. It will then pay to have a black- 
smith at hand. If 10 or more drills are run by steam from 
a central boiler, and if the main pipes are lagged, the fuel 
should not much exceed 300 lbs. per drill per 10-hr. shift. 
By the rules previously given a fairly close estimate can be 
made of the number of feet of hole that each drill should 
average. If 60 ft., for example, are to be a fair day's work in 
limestone or sandstone, we have $10.35 -v- 60 = 17 cts. per ft. 
as the cost, exclusive of superintendence, plant installation 
and plant rental. 

If a central compressor or steam plant supplies power 
for, siay, 15 drills, we may estimate the cost of operating 
each drill as follows: 



116 BANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

1 drill runner $3.00 

1 drill helper , 1.75 

1-15 fireman at $2.25 15 

1-15 compressor man at $3 20 

300 lbs. coal (water nominal) at $3 ton 45 

Sharpening bits, 30 at 3 cts 90 

Repairs to drill, hose, etc 75 

Total for 60 ft. of hole at 12 cts $7.20 

If the cost of each drill and 1-15 part of the compressor 
plant is $350, and 30 per cent, of this is assumed as a fair 
allowance for annual plant rental, we have $105 to charge 
up against each drill for "rental," or about 50 cts. per shift 
if 200 shifts are worked each year, or about 1 ct. per ft. of 
hole drilled. 

In my book ''Rock Excavation^ — Methods and Cost" will 
be found detailed data on the cost of drilling blast-holes 
with well-drillers of the "Cyclone" type. The holes were 
3 ins. diam. x 24 ft. deep in sandstone and cost 12^^ cts. per 
ft. to drill. 

Cost of Loading by Hand. — Where a laborer has merely 
to pick up and cast one-man stone into a jaw crusher, I 
have had men aveTage 34 cu. yds. of loose stone handled 
per man per 10-hr. shift, which is equivalent to about 20 
cu. yds. of solid rock. This, I believe, marks the maximum 
that may be done, day in and day out, hy a good worker, 
where the stone has scarcely to be lifted off the floor to toss 
it into the jaws. Every stone, however, was handled and 
not shoved or slid into the crusher. 

On the Chicago Canal the average output per man per 
10-hr. shift was about 7 cu. yds. loaded into dump cars, and 
this included some sledging. The average per man loading 
into the low skips used on the cableways, involving very 
little sledging, was about 10 cu. yds. of solid rock per man 
per 10-hr. shift. The best day's record was 16.6 cu. yds. per 
man loading into skips. In loading cars about 5 men out 
of the force of 36 loaders were kept busy sledging the rock; 
but with the cableways not only was it easier to roll large 
rocks into t^e skips (or "scale pans"), but very large rocks 



ROCK EXCAYATIO^^, QUARRYING, ETC. 117 

were lifted with grab hooks and chains and carried to the 
dump without sledging. 

In loading wagons with stone readily lifted by one man, 
the wagon having high sides, I have found that a man will 
readily average 10 cu. yds. solid, which is equivalent to 17 
cu. yds. loose measure per day of 10 hrs. The same man 
will throw the stone out of the wagon twice as fast as he 
will load it, and this does not mean dumping the wagon, 
but hiandling each stone separately. In loading a wagon 
having a stone-rack, and no sides, two men, passing stone 
up to the driver, who cords the stone on the rack, will load 
1 cu. yd. solid stone in 13 mins. when working rapidly, but 
this is too high an average to be maintained steadily for a 
full day. A driver will unload 1 cu. yd. solid (or 1.7 cu. yd. 
loose) from such a stone-rack, by rolling the stone off, in 7 
mins. if he hurries, but he may take 20 mins. if he loafs. A 
man will readily load a wheelbarrow with stone already 
sledged and ready for the crusher at the rate of 12 cu. yds. 
solid (or 21 cu. yds. loose) in 10 hrs. 

Cost of Handling Crushed Stone. — In handling stone 
after it has been crushed to 2i/^-in. size, or smaller, a shovel 
is used, and the output of a man depends very largely upon 
whether he is shoveling stone that lies upon smooth boards 
or upon the ground. I have often had 6 good shovelers un- 
load a canal boat holding 120 cu. yds. loose measure of 
crushed trap rock (2-in. size) in 9 hrs., but after breaking 
through to the floor the shoveling was comparatively easy; 
this is 20 cu. yds. loose (or 12 cu. yds. solid) per man per 
day shoveled into skips. In shoveling from flat cars into 
wagons the same rate can be attained, but in shoveling 
from a hopper-bottom car^ where there is at no time a 
smooth floor along which to force the shovel, an output of 
14 cu. yds. loose measure (or 8 cu. yds. solid) is a fair 10- 
hr. day's work. In shoveling broken stone off the ground 
into wagons it is not safe to count upon much more than 
12 cu. yds. loose measure (or 7 cu. yds. solid) per man per 
10 hrs. A careful manager will, if possible, provide a 
smooth platform, preferably faced with sheet iron, upon 
which to dump any stone that is to be re-handled by shov- 
elers. Small stone, %-in. or less in diameter, is easily pene- 



118 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

trated by a shovel and need not be dumped upon a plat- 
form. A clamshell bucket operated by a locomotive crane, 
is doubtless the most economic method of loading broken 
stone from cars or stock piles, where the quantity to be 
handled warrants the installation. 

Cost of Handling with a Derrick. — ^If crushed stone 
must be handled with a derrick, as in unloading boats and 
cars, use the data given in the section on Roads. 

Cost of Loading -with Steam Shovels. — A contractor 
who has never had experience in handling hard rock with 
steam shovels is almost certain to overestimate the prob- 
able output of a shovel loading rock. This is due very 
largely to the common tendency to think of all rock as be- 
ing a material that differs only to moderate degree in hard- 
ness. On the Chicago Drainage Canal, two 55-ton shovels, 
each working two 10-hr. shifts a day for four months, aver- 
aged 296 cu. yds. per shovel per shift of solid rock (lime- 
stone) loaded into cars, although it is stated that one day 
one of the shovels loaded 600 cu. yds. of rock in 10 hrs. The 
limestone on the Chicago Canal did not break up into 
small pieces upon blasting (a condition that is essential to 
economic steam shovel work in rock), but it came out in 
large chunks, much oi which had to be lifted with chains, 
instead of being scooped up by the dipper. When each 
separate rock must be ''chained out" in this way, a steam 
shovel is really no better than a derrick, and is, in fact, 
not so good. 

On a large contract near New York City, where the rock 
is a tough mica-schist that breaks out in large chunks 
even with close spacing of holes, a 65-ton shovel with a 
2%-cu. yd. dipper averaged for several weeks about 280 cu. 
yds. of solid rock loaded in cars. Part of this rock was 
loaded with the dipper and part was chained. 

On the Jerome Park Reservoir excavation in New York 
City the rock is also a tough mica-schist that blasts out 
in slabs even with heavy blasting. I am informed by Mr. 
R. C. Hunt, manager for Mr. John B. McDonald, contractor, 
that their 70-ton shovels loaded O'uly 300 cu. yds. of solid 
rock per 10-hr. shift. Mr. Hunt says: 

"This was in the gneiss rock (mica-schist) of this vicinity. 



ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 119 

The fibrous nature of Manhattian and adjacent rocks causes 
it to break in such large and awkward shapes that the 
shovel cannot do itself justice. I therefore abandoned the 
use of shovels in the rock cuts and find that I can handle 
the rock with derricks more economicaily." 

In thorough cut work on the Wabash Railroad, one 42- 
ton shovel loaded 240 cu. yds. of sandstone (solid measure) 
into dump cars in 10 hrs., as an average of a year's work; 
ibut about 10 per cent, of the working time was lost in break- 
downs, etc. 

In shale, or any friable rock that breaks up into pieces 
which readily enter the dipper, the output of a steam 
shovel is far greater than in hard rock such as we have 
been citing. Through the kindness of Mr. George Nauman, 
assistant engineer, Pennsylvania Railroad, I am able to give 
the output of several shovels working more than a year, in 
shale near Enola, Pa. Each shovel worked two 10-hr. shifts 
per day, six days in the week. In cut No. 1 there were 
nearly 2,000,000 cu. yds., of which 85 per cent, was rock. 
Of this rock a little was very hard limestone, some was 
blue shale nearly as hard, and most of it was red shale, 
somewhat softer. Excluding the first two months, the aver- 
age output of each shovel per month of double-shift work 
was nearly 31,000 cu. yds., equivalent to 15,500 cu. yds. 
single-shift work. There were, on an average, four shovels 
at work, averaging 60 tons weight per shovel. The best 
month's output was 47,300 cu. yds. pfer shovel in August, 
1903, and the poorest month (after work was well started) 
was 20,800 cu. yds. per shovel in February, 1904, working 
double shifts. 

Cost of Handling in Carts and "Wagons. — ^Since a cubic 
yard of loose broken stone weighs about as much as a 
cubic yard of earth measured in place; and since, ordinarily, 
1 cu. yd. of solid rock becomes 1.7 cu. yds. when broken, 
we may say that a team will haul about 60 per cent, as 
many cubic yards of solid rock per day as of earth. In 
other words, if the roads are such that 1 cu. yd. of packed 
(not loose) earth would make a fair wagon load for two 
horses, then 0.6 cu. yd. of solid rock would be a fair load. 
On page 76 the sizes of loads of earth that teams can haul 



120 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

are discussed, and it is only necessary to multiply the eartli 
load 'as given there by 6-10 (or 60%) to find the equivalent 
load of solid rock. 

Open-Cut Excavation. — This includes all rock excava- 
tion in open cuts (except trenches), where no special care 
is used to quarry the stone in certain sizes for masonry, 
but where explosives are used freely to break out the rock 
in sizes that can be handled with the appliances available. 

Spacing Holes in Open-Gut Excavation. — A common 
rule is to place the row of vertical drill holes a distance 
back from the face equal to the depth of the drill hole, and 
to place the drill holes a distance apart in the row equal 
to their depth. Another rule is to place the row of holes 
back from the face a distance equal to three^fourths their 
depth, and the same distance apart in the row. In stratified 
rock of medium hardness these rules may be followed in 
making the first experiments, but they will lead to serious 
error if applied to dense granitic rocks. In the limestone 
on the Chicago Canal, not much of which was loaded with 
Bteam shovels, the holes were usually 12 ft. deep and placed 
in rows about 8 ft. 'back of the face and 8 ft. apart. These 
holes were charged with 40 per cent, dynamite. In a rail- 
way cut through sandstone the holes were 20 ft. deep, 18 
ft. back from the face and 14 ft. apart in the row. These 
holes were "sprung'* three times, and each hole charged 
with 200 lbs. of black powder. In granite quarried for 
rubble for dam work, I have had to place the holes 4% to 5 
ft. back of the face and the same distance apart, the holes 
being 12 ft. deep, about 2 lbs. of 60 per cent, dynamite be- 
ing charged in each hole. On railway work in the Rocky 
Mountains about the same spacing was found necessary in 
granitic rock that was to be broken up into chunks that a 
steam shovel could handle. In pit mining at the Tread- 
well Mine, Alaska, the holes are drilled 12 ft. deep, in rows 
2y2 ft. apart, the holes being 6 ft. apart in each row and 
staggered. This requires drilling 1.7 ft. of hole per cu yd. 
It is obviously impossible to lay down any hard and fast 
rule for the spacing of drill holes. In stratified rock that 
is friable, and in traps that are full of natural joints and 
seams, it is often possible to space the holes a distance 



UOCK EXGAYATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 121 

apart somewliat, greater than their depth, and still break 
the rock to comparatively small sizes upon blasting. In 
tough granite, gneiss, syenite and in trap where joints are 
few and far between, the holes may have to be spaced 3 
to 8 ft. apart, regardless of their depth, for with wider 
spacing the blocks of stone thrown down hy blasting will be 
too large to handle with ordinary appliances. The mica- 
schist, or gneiss, of Manhattan Island is a good example 
of rock that requires close spacing of holes regardless of 
depth. I have seen holes in it 20 ft. deep and only 4 ft. 
apart. 

The effect of spacing of holes upon the cost of excava- 
tion is best shown by tabulation of the feet of hole drilled 
per cubic yard excavated, as shown in Table III.: 

TA.BLE III. 
Distance apart of 

holes, ft 1 1.5 2 2.5 8 3.5 4 4.5 5 

Cu. yds. per ft. of 

hole 04 .08 .15 .23 .33 .45 .59 .75 .93 

Ft. of hole per cu. 

yd 27.0 12.0 6.8 4.3 3.0 2.2 1.7 1.33 1.08 

Distance apart of 

holes, ft 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 

Cu. yds. per ft. of 

hole 1.83 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.70 5.32 7.25 9.52 12.05 

Ft. ©f hole per cu. 

yd 75 .56 .42 .33 .27 .19 .14 .11 .08 

Since in shallow excavations the holes can seldom be 
much further apart than 1 to l^^ times their depth, we see 
that the cost of drilling per cubic yard increases very rap- 
idly the shallower the excavation. Thus an excavation 2 
ft. deep, with holes 2 ft. apart, requires 4.3 ft. of drill hole 
per cubic yard, as against 0.42 ft. of hole per cu. yd. in a 
deeper excavation where drill holes are 8 ft. apart. Fail- 
ure to consider this fact ruined one contractor on the Erie 
Canal deepening, where rock excavation was only 2 ft. deep. 
Furthermore, the coist of drilling a foot of hole is much 
increased where frequent shifting of the drill tripod is nec- 
essary. 

By observing carefully the appearance of rocks in dif- 
ferent localities it is possible in a short time to ibecome 
tolerably proficient in the art of estimating the probable 
distance apart that holes must be drilled for the best effect 



122 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

with given charges of given kind of explosive; and with 
this end in view a young man should avail himself of every 
opportunity of studying prevailing practice in spacing drill 
holes in different localities. 

Cost of Excavating; Sandstone and Shale. — In excaviat- 
ing shales and sandstones of the coal measures of Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio, Virginia, etc., I find that holes are usually 
20 to 24 ft. deep, and spaced 12 to 18 ft. apart. On an aver- 
age we may say that for every cubic yard of solid rock 
there is 0.1 lin. ft. of drill hole, when cuts are very wide, 
covering large areas of ground; but in thorough cuts for 
railroads it is not safe to count upon much less than 0.2 
ft. of drill hole per cu. yd. The holes are almost invariably 
sprung with 40 per cent, dynamite and then charged with 
black powder. As low as V50 lb. of dynamite per cu. yd. may 
be used for springing holes in shale, and as high as % lb. 
per cu. yd. in sandstone that is to be very heavily loaded. 
I should put the average at V20 lb. of dynamite per cu. yd. 
of shale, and Vio lb. per cu. yd. of sandstone. A very com- 
mon charge is 8 kegs (200 lbs.) of black powder per hole, 
or about 1 lb. per cu. yd. in side cuts, and 1% to 2 lbs. per 
cu. yd. in thorough cuts, although as high as 3 lbs. per cu. 
yd. have been used in thorough cuts in sandstone where 
special effort was made to break up the rock to small sizes 
for steam shovel work. The drilling of the deep holes costs 
not far from 40 cts. per lin. ft. where drilling is done by 
hand with wages at 15 cts. an hour, and it may be as low 
as 12 cts. a lin. ft. if well drillers are used. Soda powder 
costs about 5 cts. per lb., and 40 per cent, dynamite 12 cts. 
per lb. We have, therefore, the following: 

Cts. per cu. yd. 

Drilling Vio ft. to 7io ft. at 40 cts 4.0 to 8.0 

Dynamite V20 lb. to Vio lb 0.6 to 1.2 

Powder, 1 lb. to 2 lbs 5.0 to 10.0 

Total for loosening the rock 9.6 to 19.2 

• The rock is commonly loaded with steam shovels, and it 
is not safe to count upon more than 500 cu. yds. of shale, 
or 250 cu. yds. of sandstone per shovel per 10-hr. shift. 



ROCK EXCAYATI0:N\ quarrying, etc, 123 

Summary. — The two cost items that the inexperienced 
man should seek first to inform himself upon, are: (1) 
The number of feet of hole drilled per cubic yard in differ- 
ent kinds of rock; and (2) the number of pounds of ex- 
plosive required per cu. yd. under varying conditions. In 
Table IV. I have given a summary of these items as 
applying to open cut work discussed in this book; the 
table does not apply to trenching, tunneling or other nar- 
row work. Two examples are given for sandstones and two 
for shales, such as occur in the coal measures of Pennsyl- 
vania, In a thorough cut on railroad work, we have con- 
ditions that approach trench work, requiring more feet of 
hole and more powder than in open side cuts; hence the 
differences between Examples 5 and 6, 7, and 8. It will 'be 
observed that the large amount of drilling in Example 2 is 
due to the shallowness of the face or lift, and in Examples 
9 to 12 it is due to the toughness of the rock. 

I shall greatly appreciate further contributions of similar 
data from my readers, for use in future editions. The 
greater the number of records, such as those in this table, 
the better will readers be able to judge the range and the 
average for each class of rock. 











TABLE IV. 






Pq^ n,,i^<« xr«^/l 










S 


© 


M 


« 






6 


3 


is 


1. 




o| 




M 


^1 
5^ 


w 

o 


o ^ 
. o 




Sd 




i 


® 


s^ 


m 


e^ 


Kind of Rock. 




o 


N 


yA 


^ 






1... 


X2 


.40 


.... 


.75 


^0% 


Limestone, Chicago Canal 


2... 


6 


1.00 




.7 


40 «^ 


** tor crushing. 


3... 


20 


. 


.... 


.37 


50"^ 


** for cement. 


4... 


15 


.43 




.26 


50% 


(holes sprung) 


5... 


20 


.1 


'i.b 


.1 


40% 


Sandstone, side cut. 


6... 


20 


.2 


2.0 


.2 


40% 


" thorough cut. 


7... 


24 


.08 


.7 


.03 


40% 


Shale, poft, side cut. 


8... 


24 


.20 


1.5 


.10 


40% 


hard, thorough cut. 


9... 


16 


1.36 




.20 


60% 


Granite, for rubble. 


10... 


12 


1.33 




.60 


40% 


Gneiss, New York City. 


11... 


14 


.63 




.50 


40% 


«< <( 


12... 


12 


1.7 




.67 


40% 


Syenite, Treadwell mine. 


13... 


. 12>^ 


.32 




.44 


52% 


Magnetic iron ore. 


14... 


14 


.35 




.20 


75% 


Trap, seamy. 


15... 


36 


1.0 




.70 


40% 


massive. 



124 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Trenching in Rock. — This is a subject upon which prac- 
tically nothing has ever been written. In consequence there 
is probably no class of rock work that is so often mis- 
managed; and, as a further consequence of the prevailing 
ignorance, engineers' estimates of cost are often far too 
low and occasionally as far too high. In city specifications 
for sewer trenching in rock it is customary tO' pay the con- 
tractor only for rock excavated within specified "neat lines." 
If he excavates beyond the "neat lines" he does so at his 
own expense. In sewer work the most common practice 
is to specify that payment will be made tor a trench 12 
ins. wider than the outside diameter of the sewer pipe, 
and 6 ins. deeper than the bottom of the pipe when the 
pipe is laid to grade. The most rational specification that 
I have seen for general use in rock trenching is as follows: 
"All trenches in rock excavation will be estimated 2 ft. 
wider than the external diameter of the pipe and 6 ins. be- 
low the sewer grade." 

Different rocks vary greatly in the way the sides and bot- 
tom shear off upon blasting. The sides of trenches in soft 
rocks can be cut off clean when the blast holes are proper- 
ly loaded; but tough granites, traps, etc., leave jagged 
walls, generally involving excavation beyond the "neat 
lines" specified. 

In excavating thin bedded, horzontally stratified rocks 
the drill holes seldom need to go much, if any, below the 
neat lines; that is, 6 ins. below the bottom of the pipe. 
But in excavating thick bedded and tough limestones and 
the like, it is generally necessary to drill 12 ins. below the 
bottom of the pipe. In tough granites, traps, etc., it is often 
necessary to drill at least 18 ins. below grade in order to 
leave no knobs or projections after blasting that would re- 
quire breaking off with bull points and sledges. Obvious- 
ly the shallower the trench the greater is the importance 
of making due allowance for this extra drilling. 

The common practice in placing drill holes is to put 
down holes in pairs, one hole on each side of the proposed 
trench; and, if the trench is wide, one or more holes are 
drilled between these two side holes. However, it is not al- 
ways necessary to drill the two holes (one on each side); 
but in narrow trench work, such as for a 12-in. water pipe, 



ttOCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. I2h 

one hole in the middle of the trench will usually prove 
sufficient if it is made of large enough diameter to hold a 
heavy charge of dynamite. For example, in trenching for 
a 12-in. waterpipe in New Jersey trap rock, holes were 
drilled in the center of the trench, 6 ft. deep, and 2 ft. 
apart. The result was a great saving in the cost of drilling 
per cubic yard. 

Cost of Drilliiig and Blasting. — Next to tunneling 
there is no class of rock excavation requiring so much drill- 
ing per cubic yard as does trench excavation. In granites, 
if shallow holes are drilled by hand, the holes are frequent- 
ly spaced not more than li/^ ft. apart. If in a very narrow 
trench 1% ft. wide two holes are drilled in a row, one on 
each side of the trench, and if the rows are V^ ft. apart, 
we have two holes drilled in a square l^^ ft. on a side; 
that is, for every 2% cu. ft. of rock we must drill 2 ft. of 
hole, or 24 ft. of drill hole per €U. yd. If the cost of drill- 
ing is 25 cts. a foot, we have $0.25 x 24 = $6 per cu. yd. ais 
the cost of drilling alone. It is seldom, however, that such 
narrow trenching is done. Trenches for small pipes are 
usually 21/^ to 3 ft. wide; two holes are usually drilled in 
a row, and rows are usually about 3 ft. apart. A trench 
3 ft. wide with two holes in a row, and rows 3 ft. apart, 
requireis 6 ft. of drilling per cubic yard. With drilling cost- 
ing 50 cts. per ft., as it often does where hand drills are 
used in granite, the cost is then $3 per cu. yd. for drilling 
alone. Unless the job is too small to pay for installing 
a plant, hand drilling should never be used in trench work, 
because the drilling forms such a very large part of the 
cost. 

In a trench 6 ft. wide in hard New Jersey trap rock 
three boles were drilled in a row, one close to each side 
and one in the middle, and the rows were 3 ft. apart, thus 
requiring 4% ft. of drill hole per cu. yd. of excavation. The 
drilling was done with steam drills at a cost of 30 cts. per 
lin. ft., for the holes were only 4i^ ft. deep, the rock was 
hard, and the men slow, ahout 35 ft. being the day's work 
per drill. The contractor had to drill I14 ft. below grade 
in this rock to insure having no projecting knobs of rock. 
While it cost $1.35 per cu. yd. to drill the ZVo ft. for which 
payment was made, to this must he added nearly 30%, or 



126 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

$0.40 per cu. yd., to cover the cost of drilling the extra 1 ft. 
for which no payment was received, making the total cost 
of drilling $1.75 per cu. yd. of pay material. About 2 lbs. 
of 40% dynamite were charged in each hole, making about 
2.6 lbs of dynamite per cu. yd. of pay material. The ex- 
plosives thus added another $0.40 per cu. yd., making a 
total of $2.15 per cu. yd. for drilling and blasting. 

In the same trap ro'ck, where the trench was 8 ft. wide 
and 12 ft. deep, there were three holes In a row and rows 
were 4 ft. apart, requiring 2.53 ft. of hole per cu. yd. of 
pay excavation, plus 0.21 ft. of hole per cu. yd. of pay ma- 
terial to cover the cost of drilling the last 1 ft. of hole be- 
low the "neat line." E'ach drill averaged 45 ft. of hole in 
10 hrs., and the cost was 23 cts. per ft. of hole; hence 
$0.23 X 2.74 = $0.63 per cu. yd. was the cost of drilling. 
About 4 lbs. of 40% dynamite were charged in each hole, 
or 1.1 lbs. per cu. yd. of pay material, making the total cost 
80 cts. per en. yd. for drilling and blasting. A comparison 
of this cost of 80 ct^. with the $2.15 above given brings out 
strikingly the fact that each prohlem of trench work must 
be considered in detail by itself. 

In a city where the contractor must fire comparatively 
small shots in order to avoid accidents to buildings and 
suits for damages arising from "disturbing the peace," it 
is seldom possible to space the holes more than 3 or at 
most 4 ft. apart. In trenching in soft sandstone in New- 
ark, N. J., where the trench was 14 ft. wide and 10 ft. deep, 
there were five holes in a row (the distance between holes 
being ZVz ft.) and rows were 4 ft. apart, making 2.4 ft. of 
hole per cu. yd. Each hole was charged with 4.12 lbs. of 
40% dynamite, making practically 1 lb. per cu. yd. About 
half the dynamite was charged at the bottom of each hole, 
then tamping was put in, and the other half was charged 
up to about 2y2 ft, below the mouth of the hole. Each 
steam drill averaged 90 ft. of hole per 10 hrs., making the 
cost of drilling 10 ct^. per ft. of hole, or 24 cts. per cu. yd. 
Including the cost of dynamite and the placing of timbers 
over each blast, the cost of drilling and blasting was 40 
cts. per cu. yd. This is probably as low a cost for breaking 
rock in a wide trench as can be counted upon under favor- 
able conditions. In this rock there was no necessity of 
drilling below grade. 



nOCK ElCAVATtON, QVARRYtVG, ETC, 127 

I am indebted to Mr. F. I. Winslow for the following data 
on trench work in Boston, Mass.: For house sewer 
trenches, contractors are allowed 3 ft. width, and trenches 
for water pipe (16 ins. or less), 2i/4 ft. width. The rock is 
granite, and the drill holes are usually 3 ft. apart drilled 
along the center of the trench, but staggered a little off 
center. On small jobs hammer drills are used, one man 
holding and two striking. For a hole 10 ft. deep the start- 
ing bit is 21^ ins. and the finishing bit is 1% ins. diam. A 
drilling gang of three men averages 8 to 10 ft. of hole in 
10 hrs., although in very soft rock 20 ft. may be drilled in 
10 hrs. In a trench 10 ft. deep, the rock is usually exca- 
vated in two 5-ft. berfches, but some contractors drill the 
full 10 ft. and take it out in one 10-ft. bench. Forcite con- 
taining 75% nitroglycerin is commonly used, % to 3 sticks 
being charged in a hole. Force account records for gran- 
ite trenching, on jobs of less than 100 cu. yds. each, show 
that the average cost during the past 15 years has been 
$3.80 per cu. yd., including excavating and piling up the 
rock alongside the trench. The wages paid hand-drillers 
were $1.75 per 10-hr. day; and to laborers, $1.40 per day. 

I am indebted to the Harrison Construction Co., of New- 
ark, N. J., for the following information: In a sandstone 
trench about 6 ft. wide the holes were spaced about 3 ft. 
apart, thus requiring 414 ft. of hole per cu. yd. In seamy 
rock, shallow holes 4 to 6 ft. deep were drilled, and from 
2 to 3 sticks of 50% dynamite were charged, each stick 
being li^ x 8 ins. This is equivalent to 0.55 lb. per cu. yd. 
Where the rock wafi solid, the holes were drilled 8 to 10 ft. 
deep and the dynamite charge doubled. 

The cost of throwing rock out of shallow trenches or of 
loading it into buckets to be raised by the engine of a 
derrick, a locomotive crane or a eableway, is somewhat 
greater than the cost of handling rock in open cuts. A 
fair day's work for one man is 6 cu. yds. of rock handled, 
when there is little sledging; but the output may be only 
4 cji. yds. where there is a large amount of sledging to be 
done. 

If cableways or derricks are used for hoisting the rock, 
bear in mind that they will be idle most of time, for the 
drilling limits the output. With a given number of drills 



l^g HANDBOOK OF CO^T DATA. 

-to a cdbleway, estimate the number of cubic yards of rock 
that the arills will break per day and divide this yardage 
into the daily cost of operating the cableway. Thus, in a 
trench 6 ft. wide, if the holes are 3 ft. apart, each cubic 
yard of rock requires 4% ft. of hole, and each drill will 
break 13% cu. yds. per day where 60 ft. of hole is a day's 
work. With four drills per cableway the daily output is 
4 X 13% — 53% cu. yds. The cableway would be capable of 
handling several times this output were it not limited by the 
drilling. Notwithstanding that all this seems self evident, 
T have known more than one contractor to overlook the 
fact that the cost of handling rock from trenches is very 
much greater than in open cuts where holes are farther 
apart and where a few drills can keep a cableway busy. 

Cost o£ Quarrying and Crusliing Trap. — The follow- 
ing data relate to quarrying New Jersey trap rock and 
crushing it in gyratory crushers. The quarry face was 12 
to 18 ft. high. The output of the following gang was 200 
cu. yds. of crushed stone per 10-hr. day, each cubic yard 
of crusher run product weighing 2,700 lbs., no piece being 
more than 2 ins. diameter. The weight of a solid cubic 
yard of this trap was 4,500 lbs., so that the voids in the 
crushed stone were 407o. Drill holes were spaced about 5 

ft. apart. -r^ , -rv ^ 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 

3 drillers at $2.75 $8.25 $0,041 

3 helpers at $1.75 5.25 0.026 

10 men barring out and sledging 15.00 0.075 

14 men loading carts 21.00 0.105 

4 cart horses 6.00 0.030 

2 cart drivers 3.00 0.015 

2 men dumping carts and feeding 

crusher 3.00 0.015 

1 fireman for drill boiler 2.50 0.013 

1 engineman for crusher 3.00 0.015 

1 blacksmith 3.00 0.015 

1 blacksmith helper 2.00 0.010 

1 foreman 5.00 0.025 

2 tons coal at $3.50 7.00 0.035 

150 lbs. 40% dynamite at 15 cts 22.50 0.113 

Total $106.50 $0,533 



r.OCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 129 

Interest, depreciation and repairs would add about $8 
or |10 more per day, or 4 to 5 ets. per cu. yd. There was 
no earth stripping. 

The ;stone was loaded into one-horse dump carts, the 
driver taking one cart to the crusher while the other cart 
was being loaded. The haul was 100 ft. The oarts were 
dumped into an inclined chute feeding into a No. 5 Gates 
gyratory crusher. The stone was elevated by sl bucket ele- 
vator and screened. All stone larger than 2-in. was re- 
tured through a chute to a small No. 3 Gates crusher to 
be re-crushed. 

I should add that the trap rock was much iseamed, so 
that upon blasting it was broken into tolerably small 
chunks, so that the cost of sledging was not high consid- 
ering the small size of the crusher. 

Sizes and Weight of Crushed Trap.— Mr. William E. 
McClintock gives the following data relative to Massachu- 
setts trap rock: The rock weighs 180.7 lbs. per cu. ft. solid, 
or 4,879 lbs. per cu, yd. solid, being very heavy. The 
crushed trap of the Mass. Broken Stone Co., at Salem, 
weighs 2,586 lbs. per cu. yd., and has 47% voids. A rotary 
screen is used 10 ft. long, 40 ins. diameter, with three sec- 
tions 3% ft., 3 ft. and 3 ft. long respectively, having cir- 
cular holes i/^-in., 1^/^ ins. and 3 ins. diameter. A bin hold- 
ing 29 cu. yds. was used to measure the %-in. screenings 
which were afterward weighed and found to average 2,605 
lbs. per cu. yd. A box holding 1 cu. yd. was packed full 
with wet screenings which weighed only 2,480 lbs. The 
same box packed full of the same kind of screenings dry 
was found to hold 2,690 lbs. A bin holding 90 cu. yds. of 
the 1^-in. stone averaged 2,423 lbs, per cu. yd.; and a bin 
of the same size full of 3-in. stone, averaged 2,522 lbs. per 
€u. yd. This 3-in. stone was again measured in cars, and 
found to average 2,531 lbs. per cu. yd. 

To determine the percentages of the different sizes, 19 
cu. yds. of broken stone were measured and found to run 
as follows: 

H-in. trap 13.24% 

iy2-in. trap 23.89% 

3-in. trap 62.87% 

Total 100.00% 



130 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The tailings over 3 ins. in size were re-crushed. 

More data on the sizes and weights of broken stone will 
he found in the sections on Roads and on Concrete. Con- 
sult the index under Broken Stone. 

Cost of Breaking: Stone by Hand.— At Rochester, N. Y., 
I found that a good 10-hrs. work for a skilled man was 3 
cu. yds. of limestone broken to 2-in. sizes, but that 2 cu. 
yds. were all a beginner could break. 

Cost of Crusliing: at Newton, Mass. — A. P. Noyes, City 
Engineer of Newton, Mass., gives the following cost data 
for the year 1891, on four jobs of crushing stone and cobbles 
for macadam. On jobs A and B the stone was quarried and 
crushed; on jobs C and D cobblestones were crushed. A 
9 X 15-in. Farrel-Marsondon crusher was used, stone being 
fed in by two laborers. A rotary screen having %, 1 and 
2% -in. openings delivered the stone into bins having four 
compartments, the last receiving the ''tailings" which had 
failed to pass through the screen. The broken stone was 
measured ia carts as they left the bin, but several cart loads 
were weighed, giving the following weights per cubic foot of 
broken stone: 





%-in. 


1-in. 


2y2-in&. 


Tailings. 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


Greenish trap rock, "A'* ... 


. 95.8 


84.3 


88.3 


91.0 


Conglomerate, "B" 


.101.0 
. 102.5 


87.7 
98.0 


94.4 
99.6 




Coibblestones, ''C" and "D". 





A one-horse cart held 26 to 28 cu. ft (average 1 cu. yd.) 
of broken stone; a two-horse cart, 40 to 42 cu. ft., at the 
crusher. 



— Job.- 



A. B. C. D. 

Hours run 412 144 101 198 

Short tons per hour 9.0 11.2 15.7 12.1 

Cu. yds. per honr 7.7 8.9 11.8 9.0 

Per cent, of tailings 31.8 29.3 17.5 20.5 

Per cent, of 2y2-in. stone 51.3 51.9 57.0 55.1 

Per cent, of 1-in. stone 10.2 

Per cent, of Va-in. stone or dust 6.7 18.8 25.5 23.4 



ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 131 



A. 

Explosives, coal for drill and 

repairs $0,084 

Labor steam drilling 0.092 

Labor hand drilling f 

Sharpening tools 0.069 

Sledging stone for crusher.... 0.279 

liOading carts 0.098 

Carting to crusher 0.072 

Feeding crusher 0.053 

Engineer of crusher 0.031 

Coal for crusher 0.079 

Repairs to crusher 0.041 

Moving portable crusher 

Watchman ($1.75 a day) 



Total cost per cu. yd $0,898 

Total cost per short ton. . . . 0.745 



B. 

$0,018 

0.249 
0.023 
0.420 
0.127 
0.062 
0.053 
0.038 
0.050 

0.023 
0.053 

$L116 

0.885 



-Job- 



c. 



D. 



$0,314* 
0.033 
0.029 
0.047 



0.022 

$0,445 
0.330 



$0,144 
0.098 
0.065 
0.036 
0.044 
0.011 
0.019 
0.030 

$0,447 
0.372 

Note. —"A" was trap rock; "B" was conglomerate rock; "C" and *'D" 
were trap and granite cobblestones. Common laborers en Jobs "A" and 
"D" were paid $1.75 per 9-hr. day; on jobs "B" and "C," $1.50 per 9-lir. 
day; two-horse cart and driver, $5 per day; blacksmith, $2.50; engineer 
on cruiher, $2 on job "A/' $2.25 on "B," $2.00 on "C," $2.50 on "D" ; 
•team driller reoelyed $3, and helper $1.75 a day; foreman, $3 a day. 
Goal was $5.25 per short ton. Forclte powder 11 H cts. per lb. 

Coit of Quarrying: and Crushing: Quartzite. — Mr. W. 

G. Kirchoffer gives the following data on the cost of quar- 
rying and crushing quartzite for macadam, in 1903, at Bara- 
boo, Wis. The plant was a municipal plant operated by day 
labor, and the costs were somewhat higher than under 
contract work. The crusher was a No. 3 Austin jaw crush- 
er, 12 X 16-in. opening. Three sizes of screen holes in the 
rotary screen were used: %-in., 1%-in. and 2^-in, The first 
cost of the plant was as follows, in 1901: 

Crusher $900 

Bins 108 

Steam drill 218 

Small tools 108 



n,334 



♦Loading and hauling In wheelbarrowa 



132 BANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The output of the crusher by years has been: 

. ^Year. > 

1901. 1902. 1903 

T^tal output, cu. yds 1,920 3,700 4,883 

Days worked .* 47 70 88 

Output per day, cu. yds 41 53 65^ 

In the year 1901, about 10% of the stone was screened out 
and thrown away. The wages paid per 10-hr. day were: 
Laborers, $1.50; quarrymen, $1.75; drill-runner, $2; engine- 
man and engine, $3.50. The stone was measured in wagons 
built to hold just 1% cu. yds., by weight, 3,900 lbs., and 
the following costs for 1903 are based upon wagon measure- 
ment of the stone: 

Per cu. yd. 

Quarry rent , $0.0207 

Labor quarrying, including foreman 0.3200 

Labor crushing 0.1980 

Tools 0.0148 

Dies for crusher 0.0636 

Dynamite (60% at 25 cts. per lb.), caps and fuse 0.0910 

Rent of engine and wages of engineman 0.0635 

Fuel for engine, $4.60 per ton. 0.0477 

Oil and waste 0.0033 

Hauling water and supplies 0.0499 

Supplies 0.0137 

Superintendent of crusher 0.0476 

Depreciation of plant 0.0736 

Total $1.0074 

The cost of hauling 2% miles to the street was 50 cts. 
per cu. yd., wages of team and driver being $3 a day. 

The cost of the macadam pavement, including stone, 
hauling, grading, spreading stone, claying and rolling, has 
been a little less than 50 cts. per sq. yd. The macadam was 
8 ins. thick at the center and 6 ins. at the gutters, measured 
after rolling. 

OtlieT Data on Crushing. — ^The size Of jaw crushers is 
commonly denoted by the size of opening through which 
the stone passes to the jaws. A 9 x 15-in. crusher Is one 
having an opening 9 ins. wide by 15 ins. long; which is the 



ROCK EXCAVATION, QUARRYING, ETC. 133 

common size for portable plants. To move such a crusher 
a few miles from one location to another, set up the bins, 
etc., preparatory to crushing, costs about $75, according to 
the author's experience. The main part of this cost consists 
in tearing down and rebuilding the bins, mounting the 
rotary screen and adjusting the bucket-elevator. There are 
several makes of portable bins on wheels now in the mar- 
ket, and with these the cost of moving should be much re- 
duced. A large bin capacity, however, is desirable to ''tide 
ever" any irregularities in the hauling and in the operation 
of the crusher itself. Bins should always be used to save 
the cost of shoveling the broken stone into wagons. 

The gyratory crusher is now largely used on large per- 
manent plants. The following are the sizes of the style **D" 
Gates gyratory crusher: 



Diameter 
Size at top 
No. out to out. 
1 3 ft. 6 ins. 


Size 

of each 

receiving 

opening. 

5 X 18 ins. 


Weight 

of 

crusher, 

lbs. 

5,500 


Tons 
per hr. to 
2K-in. size. 

4 to 8 


HP. for 

crusher, 

elevator 

and screen 

8 to 10 


2 3 ft. 10 ins. 


6 X 21 ins. 


8,000 


6 to 12 


12 to 15 


3 4 ft. 6 ins. 


7 X 22 ins. 


14,000 


10 to 20 


20 to 25 


4 6 ft. 8 ins. 


8x27 ins. 


21,000 


15 to 30 


25 to 30 


5 7 ft. 10 ins. 


10 X 30 ins. 


30,000 


25 to 40 


30 to 40 


6 8 ft. 7 ins. 


11 X 36 ins. 


42,000 


30 to 60 


40 to 60 


71/2 10 ft. 8 ins. 


14 X 45 ins. 


63,000 


75 to 125 


75 ito 125 


8 11 ft. 


18 X 63 ins. 


94,000 


125 to 200 


100 to 150 



The output is given in tons of 2,000 lbs. per hour of roek 
crushed to pass a 2%-in. ring. A contractor is safe in as- 
suming the smaller outputs given in the table. 

Further data on the cost of quarrying and crushing will 
be found elsewhere in this book in the section on Roads, for 
which consult the index under Crushing. 

References. — In my book, ''Rock Excavation: Methods 
and Cost,'* further data on the subjects discussed in this 
section are given; and, in addition, chapters on tunneling, 
shaft-sinking, dimension-stone quarrying, submarine exca- 
vation, channeling, canal excavation, diamond drilling, use 
of explosives, etc.. 

In this Hand-Book of Cost Data, the reader will find fur- 
ther information in the sections on Roads, Concrete and 
Masonry, for which consult the index under Rock Excava- 
tion. 



SECTION IV. 



COST OP ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS, ETC. 



Cost of Quarrying and Crushing for Macadam. — ^^The 
cost of operating a small quarry, and crushing with a port- 
able or semi-portable crusher is obviously much higher 
than where a large plant is used. For some time to come 
the greater part of road-metal crushing will be done with 
small plants, under conditions such as I am about to de- 
scribe, and at costs not far differing from those that will 
be given. I have kept itemized records of the cost of quar- 
rying and crushing on a number of different road jobs, and 
first published (1901) a part of these records in a little book 
entitled ''Economics of Road Construction." 

In quarrying limestone, where the face of the quarry was 
only 5 to 6 ft. high, and where the amount of stripping was 
small, one steam drill was used. This drill received its 
steam from the same boiler that supplied the crusher en- 
gine. The drill averaged 60 ft. of hole drilled per 10-hr. 
day, but was poorly handled and frequently laid off for re- 
pairs. The cost of quarrying and crushing was as follows: 



Quarry. 

1 driller $2.50 

1 helper 1.50 

1 man stripping 1.50 

4 men quarrying 6.00 

1 blacksmith 2.50 

X ton coal at $3 1.00 

Repairs to drill 60 

Hose, drill steel and inter- 
est on plant 90 

24 lbs. dynamite 8.60 



Crusher. 

1 englneman $2.50 

2 men feeding crusher 3. 50 

6 men wheeling ©.00 

1 bin man 1.50 

1 general foreman 8.00 

Htoncoalatf3 1.00 

1 gallon oil ,... .25 

Repairs to crusher 1.00 

Repairs to engine and boiler 1.00 

Interest on plant 1.00 



Total $20.10 

Summary : 

Quarrying 

Crushing 



Total $23.75 



Total for 60 cu. yds. 



Per day. 

$20.10 

23.75 

$48.85 



Per cu. yd. 

$0.37 

0.39 



$0.76 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 135 

The *'4 men quarrying" barred out and sledged the stone 
to sizes that would enter a 9 x 16-in. jaw crusher. The "6 
men wheeling" delivered the stone in wheelbarrows to the 
crusher platform, the run plank being never longer than 
150 ft. Two men fed the stone into the crusher, and a bin- 
man helped load the wagons from the bin, and kept tally 
of the loads. The stone was measured loose in the wagons, 
and it was found that the average load was li^ cu. yds., 
weighing 2,400 lbs. per cu. yd. There were 40 wagon loads, 
or 60 cu. yds. crushed per 10-hr. day, although on some days 
as high as 75 cu. yds. were crushed. The stone was screened 
through a rotary screen, 9 ft. long, having three sizes of 
openings, i/4-in., 1%-in. and 2%-in. The output was 16% 
of the smallest size, 24% of the middle size, and 60% of the 
large size. All tailings over 2y2 ins. in size were re-crushed. 

It will be noted that the interest on the plant is quite an 
important item. This is due to the fact that, year in and 
year out, a quarrying and crushing plant for roadwork sel- 
dom averages more than 100 days actually worked per year, 
and the total charge for interest must be distributed over 
these 100 days, and not over 300 days as is so commonly and 
erroneously done. The cost of stripping the earth off the 
rock is often considerably in excess of the above given cost, 
and each case must be estimated separately. Quarry rental 
or royalty is usually not in excess of 5 cts. per cu. yd., and 
frequently much less. The dynamite used was 40%, and 
the cost of electric exploders is included in the cost given. 
Where a higher quarry face is used the cost of drilling and 
the cost of explosives per cu. yd. is less. Exclusive of quar- 
ry rent and heavy stripping costs, a road contractor should 
be able to quarry and crush limestone or sandstone for not 
more than 75 cts. per cu. yd., or 62 cts. per ton of 2,000 lbs., 
wages and conditions being as above given. 

The labor cost of erecting bins and installing a 9 x 16 jaw 
crusher, elevator, etc., averages about $75, including haul- 
ing the plant two or three miles, and dismantling the plant 
when work is finished. Further quarrying and crushing 
data are given in section on rock excavation. 

Cost of Hauling. — Bins should always be erected to re- 
ceive the broken stone, and the bottoms should have a slope 
of not less than 1 to 1, and be lined with sheet iron. If the 
slope is flat, say 1% to 1, a wagon can not be loaded in mucli 



136 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

less than 7 inins* and then a potato-hook or hoe must be 
used to keep the stone moving. But with a 1 to 1 slope, the 
stone runs freely and a wagon can be loaded in 2 mins. with 
1% cu. yds. In estimating the cost of loading wagons from 
bins it is well to allow 5 mins. per load, to cover little delays. 
Allow 5 mins. more to dump the wagon if it is a slat bot- 
tom wagon. Dump each load in three small piles, to reduce 
the labor of spreading. With team and driver at 35 cts. 
per hr., iVz cu. yd. per load, and an average speed of 220 
ft. per min., or 2i^ miles per hr., the cost of hauling bro- 
ken stone from bins and dumping it is 7 cts. per cu. yd., as 
the fixed cost for lost time loading and dumping, plus ^^ 
ct. per cu. yd. per 100 ft. of one-way haul. 

This rule may be expressed thus: To a fixed cost of 7 
cts. per cu. yd. add 25 cts. per mile measured one way from 
the Mil to the dump. 

This rule applies to the loose stone measured in the 
wagon at the bin. I find that after traveling a short dis- 
tance the loose stone jars down and compacts to a volume 
about 10% less. If the stone is estimated by the ton of 
2,000 lbs., the rule becomes: 

To a fixed cost of 6 cts. per ton add 20 cts. per ton per 
mile of haul measured one loay. 

The foregoing rules apply to a load of 1^^ cu. yds., which 
is a fair load over hard earth roads. If the haul is all 
over macadam road, 2% to 3 cu. yds. may be hauled per 
load, even where there are 5% grades. I have used coal 
wagons with fixed sides and solid bottom, which were un- 
loaded by opening the end gate and two small gates in the 
middle of the wagon, one on each side. Such a wagon hold- 
ing 3 cu. yds. may be unloaded by the driver in 16 mins.; 
and in half that time if another man assists the driver. 
On comparatively long hauls these wagons are to be pre- 
ferred to slat bottom wagons, and if the work is near a 
city they can usually be rented at small cost. 

In estimating the average length of haul on roadwork, 
bear in mind that the haul is never constant, and that at 
times the work will be too great for 5 teams, for example, 
but not enough to keep 6 teams fully busy. After estimat- 
ing the cost by the above rules, for the actual average haul, 
I consider it fair to add about 15% to cover the add^d ^QSt 



ROADS, PAVEMENTSy WALKS. 137 

due to variable haul, and the added cost of team time due 
to delays at the crusher. 

Cost of Spreading. — Two men will assist the drivers in 
dumping their wagons and will spread the coarse stone, 
where 50 cu. yds. is the daily output of coarse stone from 
the crusher, provided the stone is dumped in small piles 
directly on the road and not off to one side. If the specifi- 
cations require the stone to be dumped on platforms along- 
side the road and then shoveled into place, it will take at 
least four men instead of two. By all odds the cheapest 
way of spreading stone is to use a leveling scraper drawn 
by horses. With a Shuart grader, drawn by a team and 
operated by the driver and one man, 50 cu. yds. may be 
spread in 1 hr., at a cost of 1 ct. per cu. yd. It costs 1 ct. 
more per cu. yd. to complete the leveling of the stone by 
hand with a rake or potato-hook. The foregoing relates 
only to the coarse stone used in macadam, and not to the 
screening or binder which is put on after the coarse stone 
has been rolled and compacted. The screenings should not 
be dumped on the rolled stone, but in piles alongside the 
road, and spread with shovels; or the screenings may be 
spread directly from a wagon driven over the rolled stone, 
men walking behind the wagon with shovels which they 
fill from the wagon. Prom piles a man spreads 10 cu. yds. 
of screenings in 10 hrs., at a cost of 15 cts. per cu. yd. 

Cost of Rolling.— 'The daily cost of operating a 10 or 
12-ton steam road roller seldom differs much from the fol- 
lowing average, except as to the price of coal. 

Per day. 

Engineman $3.00 

V2 night watchman's wages 0.75 

0.35 ton coal at $6 2.10 

Oil 0.30 

2 tons of water pumped and hauled for boiler 0.75 

Annual repairs ($150) 1.50 

Annual interest ($150) 1.50 

$9.90 

The annual repairs on roller seldom average less than 

5% and often are 6% of the purchase price of the roller; 

th^^e repairs include new rear wheels every 5 or 6 years, 



138 IIAISDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

new boiler tubes, etc., necessary to keep the roller as good 
as new. Moreover, these repairs must be charged up 
against 100 days actually worked each year. My estimate 
of 100 days, as an average, was published four years ago, 
and has been recently confirmed in the annual report of the 
Massachusetts Highway Commission. If, therefore, the first 
cost of the roller is $2,500, the annual interest charge, at 
6%, is $150, which is equivalent to $1.50 per day actually 
worked; and an equal amount should be charged for re- 
pairs and depreciation. 

^ roller will average 40 cu. yds. of macadam, measured 
compacted after rolling, in a 10-hr. day, which is equiva- 
lent to 25 cts. per cu. yd. of macadam for rolling, or 4 cts. 
per sq. yd. of macadam 6 ins. thick. 

One record that I have shows that in 72 working days 
of 8 hrs. each, a 10-ton roller thoroughly compacted 4,000 
cu. yds. (24,300 sq. yds.) of 6-in. macadam on a gravelly 
sub-soil. This is equivalent to 55 cu. yds. of macadam per 
day. The macadam was laid in two courses, a 4-in. course 
of limestone and a 2-in. course of trap rock. 

In rolling 6-in. macadam, at Hudson, N. Y., Mr. H. K. 
Bishop has found that 60 cu. yds. of compacted macadam, 
or 360 sq. yds., is the average 8-hr. day's work for a 10-ton 
steam roller. The roller was rented at $12 a day, includ- 
ing engineman and fuel, thus making the cost nearly 20 
cts. per cu. yd. of macadam for rolling, not including 
sprinkling. The sprinkling was done from the village hy- 
drants at a cost of less than 2 cts. per cu. yd. of macadam. 

Cost of Sprinkling. — It requires about 4 cu. ft. of 
water per cu. yd. of compacted macadam to "pud- 
dle'* the screenings or binder; but some inspec- 
tors are not satisfied with less than four times 
the necessary amount of water. In 10 hrs. one man, 
with a hand pump, will raise 1,000 cu. ft. of water 16 ft. 
high into a tank from which it can be drawn off into the 
sprinkler. A small gasoline driven pump gives a cheaper 
method of securing water, where the amount of work war- 
rants its purchase and installation. A two-horse sprinkler 
holding 60 cu. ft. of water is ordinarily used. Where the 
haul is short the driver can pump the water himself direct- 
ly into the water wagon, for he can fill the wagon in half 
an hour, or less. If the haul is long, the lost team time is 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. W 

reduced by using a tank from which the wagon can be filled 
in less than 10 mins. Ordinarily one sprinkling wagon, 
whose driver pumps the necessary water, will supply all the 
water needed to sprinkle the subgrade and puddle the 
macadam rolled by one steam roller. With long hauls and 
sandy subgrade, it will take two or more wagons. The 
number can be closely estimated, knowing the length of 
haul, by assuming 10 cu. ft. of water per cu. yd. of com- • 
pacted macadam, which is sufficient to water the subgrade 
and puddle the macadam. If one wagon, at $4 a day for 
team and driver, is used, and 40 cu. yds. of macadam are 
laid, the cost is 10 cts. per cu. yd. for sprinkling. 

Quantity of Stone and Binder Required.~In "Eiconom- 
ics of Road Construction," I called attention to an error that 
had been copied in text books from a very early day down 
to the present, namely the statement that a layer of loose 
stone 6 ins. thick can be compacted under a roller till it 
is 4 ins. thick. No such compression is possible, but it of- 
ten happens that the stone is driven 1 to 2 ins. into the 
subgrade. On a hard earth subgrade, it never requires 
more than 1.3 cu. yds. of coarse loose stone (exclusive of 
the screenings or binder) to make 1 cu. yd. of rolled or 
compacted stone, and where the stone is very tough the 
"compression" is even less. The percentage of binder or 
screenings required to fill the voids in the rolled stone 
varies somewhat with the thickness of the macadam. To 
ascertain the thickness of the coat of screenings necessary 
to fill the voids in the rolled stone, divide the thickness of 
the rolled stone by 4 and add % inch. Thus, for a 6-in. ma- 
cadam road, there will be required 6 -^- 4 + % = T/a ins. of 
screenings. This is equivalent to 0.3 cu. yd. of screenings 
per cu. yd. of macadam. Therefore, to make a cubic yard 
of finished 6-in. macadam requires 1.3 cu. yds. of coarse 
stone and 0.3 cu. yd. of screenings, or 1.6 cu. yds. measured 
in the wagons to make 1 cu. yd. of compacted macadam. 
Stated differently: 

7.8 ins. of loose stone (V2 to 2%-in.) will roll to 6 ins. 
1.8 ins., of screenings (less than %-in.) will fill voids, 

9.6 ins. of loose stone and screenings will make 6 ins. of 
macadam. 



140 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

If the stone weighs 2,400 lbs. per cu. yd., we need 1.56 
short tons of coarse stone and 0.36 short ton of screen- 
ings, a total of 1.92 tons required to make 1 cu. yd. of fin- 
ished macadam. If the stone is a heavy trap rock, weigh- 
ing 2,700 lbs. per cu. yd., we need 1.75 short tons of coarse 
stone and 0.41 short ton of screenings, a total of 2.16 tons 
per cu. yd. of finished macadam. This estimate, based upon 
my own records, checks very well with records published 
by the Massachusetts Highway Commission, 

On 2.6 miles of 6-in. New York State macadam, 1,600 cu. 
yds. of screenings were required to bind 4,000 cu. yds. of 
macadam rolled in place. This is equivalent to 0.4 cu. yd. 
of screenings per eu. yd. of imacadam, or a depth of 2.4 ins. 
of loose screenings to bind the 6 ins. of rolled macadam. 
This large amount was due to the speciflcation requirement 
that a "wearing coat" of screenings be left on the road. 

The contractor is cautioned against careless examination 
of rqad specifications, for many engineers require the con- 
tractor to grade the subgrade exactly to grade and then put 
on enough stone to bring the finished macadam up to the es- 
tablished road grade. This causes the contractor to lose all 
stone that is driven into the subgrade by the roller, which 
in sand, or in soft wet clay, may amount to 2 ins. or more 
of loose stone. 

Some specifications also foolishly require a %-in. "wear- 
ing coat" of screenings to be left on the finished road, and 
this also amounts to a good many cubic yards of wasted 
material in a mile. The roadmaker will do well to carry 
in mind the following data: A bed 1 in. thick, 10 ft. wide 
and a mile long, contains 163 cu. yds. A bed 6 ins. thick, 
16 ft. wide and a mile long, contains 1,564 cu. yds. 

Summary of Cost. — Based upon the foregoing data, the 
cost of macadam is as follows: 

Cost of stone (measured loose). Per cu. yd. 

Quarrying and crushing $0.80 

Quarry royalty 0.05 

Hauling, say, 1% 'miles 0.50 

Spreading with shovels 0.15 

Total per cu. yd. delivered and spread $1.50 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 141 

The quarrying includes 4 cts. per cu. yd. for stripping the 
earth. 

Cost of macadam (measured packed). Per cu. yd. 

1.3 cu. yds. coarse stone, at $1.50 $1.95 

0.3 cu. yd. screenings, at $1.50 0.45 

Sprinkling 0.10 

Rolling 0.25 

% foreman, at 40 cts. per hr 0.05 

Total per cu. yd. in place $2.80 

This is equivalent to the following costs per square yard: 

4-in. macadam 31 cts. per sq. yd. 

6-in. macadam 47 cts. per sq. yd. 

8-in. macadam 62 cts. per sq. yd. 

9-in. macadam 70 cts. per sq. yd. 

It will be remembered that wages of common laborers 
were assumed at 15 cts. per hr., and of teams at 35 cts. per 
hr. including driver. It will be noted that the cost of 
spreading is assumed for the worst conditions; but where 
the specifications permit, and where the contractor uses a 
leveling scraper, this item may be greatly reduced. The 
cost of hauling may also be greatly reduced if the specifica- 
tions permit the hauling of loads over the newly laid 
macadam and if the work of macadamizing begins near the 
crusher. Few rocks are soft enough to yield a sufficiently 
large percentage of screenings to bind the macadam; in 
which case screenings must be imported, unless the speci- 
fications permit the use of loam, sand, or clay. 

Macadam roads are usually made 4 to 6 ins. thick after 
rolling, and 12 to 16 ft. wide. I have often urged the more 
common use of single track macadam roads, 8 ft. wide, with 
turnouts (16 ft. wide) located every few hundred feet apart. 
In sparsely settled districts this would give an excellent 
road at a small cost per mile. 

Cost of a Sandstone and Trap Macadam, — Near 
Rochester, N. Y., a macadam road 16 ft. wide and 6 ins. 
thick was built by contract, on a sandy soil. The bottom 
4 ins. of the macadam were of sandstone bound with lime- 
stone screenings. The top 2 ins. were of trap rock bound 



142 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

with limestone screenings. The sandstone was fieldstone 
pbtained mostly from old stone fences near the road. Wages 
of common laborers were 15 cts. an hour; teams, 35 cts. 

The cost of sandstone crushed and delivered on the road 
was as follows per cubic yard measured in the wagons: 

Cu. yd. 

Paid farmers for fences $0.10 

Loading, hauling i/^ mile, and crushing. 0.80 

Hauling 1 mile and spreading 0.35 

Total $1.25 

The limestone screenings, used as a binder, were imported 
on canal boats, and delivered on the road cost as follows 
per cubic yard measured in the wagons: 

Cu. yd. 

Screenings delivered on boats $1.50 

Unloading into wagons with derrick 0.25 

Hauling 2 miles 0.30 

Spreading on road 0.15 

Total $2.25 

The cost of the trap rock was the same as for the lime- 
stone screenings. The cost of the 4-in. sandstone base was 
as follows: 

Cu. yd. 

1.4 cu. yds. sandstone, at $1.25 $1.75 

% cu. yd. limestone screenings, at $2.25 0.75 

Rolling and sprinkling 0.08 

Total (measured in place) $2.58 

The cost of the 2-in. trap wearing coat was as follows: 

1.4 cu. yds. trap, at $2.25 $3.15 

% cu. yd. screenings, at $2.25 0.75 

Rolling and sprinkling 0.52 

Total (measured in place) $4.42 

The 10-ton roller pushed much of the stone into the sandy 
subgrade, which accounts in part for the fact that it took 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 143 

1.4 cu. yds. of loose stone to make 1 cu. yd. of rolled 
macadam. No very accurate record was kept of the amount 
of screenings used, but the amount stated is not far from 
correct. It will be noted that rolling the 4-in. lower course 
cost only 8 cts. per cu. yd. as compared with 52 cts. per 
cu. yd. for the 2-in. top course. This is due to the fact 
that the lower course was hastily rolled. Strictly speaking 
these two courses should not be treated separately in dis- 
cussing the cost of rolling. The cost of rolling and sprink- 
ling the two courses was 24 cts. per en. yd. 

Cost of Maintenance of Steam Rollers. — Mr. Thomas 
Aitken, who has used steam rollers for many years, is au- 
thority for the following data: The rear wheels of a roller 
lasted 7 years, during which time they consolidated 60,- 
000 tons of road metal. The renewal of these wheels, to- 
gether with other repairs and renewals of fire boxes, tubes, 
etc., amounted to $75 a year for 10 years. A set of 4 trac- 
tion wheels and fore carriage for a 12-ton Aveling & Por- 
ter (England) roller cost $325; and the first cost of the 
roller was $2,000 in England. Aitken states that the cost 
of maintenance of a steam roller averages 5 to 6% per 
year. 

Cost of a Limestone Macadam Road. — ^The following 
data apply to a limestone macadam road 6 ins. thick and 
12 ft. wide, built by contract near Buffalo, N. Y., in 1898. 
The earth was a tough clay and ditches nearly 3 ft. deep 
were dug along both sides of the road. The cost of digging 
the ditches was nearly half the total cost of grading. The 
following was the cost of one mile of grading, including 
ditching and surfacing, in comparatively level country, the 
amount of excavation being about 4,600 cu. yds. (the graded 
road was 22 ft. wide between ditches) : 

Labor at $1.50 per 10-hr. day $670 

Teams at $3.50 per 10-hr. day 226 

Foreman at $2.50 per 10-hr. day 97 

Waterboy at $1.00 per 10-hr. day 17 

Total per mile $1,010 

This is equivalent to about 22 cts. per cu. yd. 



144 tlA^slDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

There were stretches of this road where ditches already 
existed, and the only grading required was to plow up the 
old surface, shape the trench to receive the macadam, and 
make the earth shoulders 5 ft. wide on each side of the 
macadam. Such stretches of grading cost $320 a mile. 

The macadam was 6 ins. thick after rolling and 12 ft. 
wide. It was laid in two courses; (1) a foundation course 
of 1^/4 to 21/2-in. limestone, 4 ins. thick after rolling; and 
(2) a top course of ^ to l^/i-in. limestone, 2 ins. thick after 
rolling. Both coursec were bound with limestone screen- 
ings. As an average of 3^/4 miles of road, it was found 
that loose stone spread to a depth of 6 ins. was rolled 
down with a 10-ton roller to an apparent thickness of 4 
ins., but without doubt about 1 in. of stone was pushed into 
the subgrade and lost so far as the final measurement was 
concerned. It therefore took 1^^ cu. yds. of loose (1^ to 
2i^-in.) stone (measured in cars or wagons) to make 1 
cu. yd. of rolled foundation course. For the top course it 
took a thickness of 2.8 ins. of loose (% to 1^/4-in.) stone to 
give the required 2-in. thickness after rolling. This indi- 
cates also a further pushing of the foundation stone into 
the clay below, for all measurements of thickness were 
made with a level, and not by digging holes through the 
finished macadam. The average of these two courses was 
1.46 cu. yds. of loose stone (not including screenings) to 
make 1 cu. yd. of rolled stone, but it took a trifle over 
Vs cu. yd. of limestone screenings (from size of dust up to 
%-in.) to bind each cubic yard of rolled macadam. We 
have, therefore: 

Loose stone 1.46 cu. yds. 

Screenings 0.34 cu. yd. 

Total 1.80 cu. yds. 

This means that it required 1.8 cu. yds. of screenings 
and loose stcne (measured in wagons) to make 1 cu. yd. 
of roiled macadam. The cost of each cubic yard of 
macadam was as follows: 

Stone and screenings, f. o. b., 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.70. .. . $1.26 
Freight, 25 cts. ton, 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.28 0.50 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS, 145 

Unloading cars into wagons, 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.11 0.20 

Hauling % mile, 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.28 0.50 

Spreading, 1.8 cu. yds., at $0.08 0.14 

Sprinkling 0.19 

Rolling, including rolling subgrade 0.24 

Total per cu. yd. of macadam $3.03 

Ijaborers received $1.50, and teams (with drivers) $3.50 
per 10-hr. day. 

Cost of Grading a Road, — ^A stiff clay was ditched and 
graded for a macadam road near Buffalo, N. Y., at the fol- 
lowing cost per cu. yd.: 

Per cu. yd. 

Plowing '. $0.05 

Loading into wagons 0.12^^ 

Hauling 1,000 ft 0.05l^ 

Spreading 0.05 

Foreman, supt, timekeeper and waterboy 0.05 

Total $0.33 

The work was done by contract, and wages were $1.50 
for common laborers, $4.50 for teams, per 8-hr. day. The 
clay was loosened with a rooter plow and was hauled in 
patent dump wagons. This cost is a safe figure for stiff 
material hauled not more than 1,000 ft. 

The cost of grading 2% miles of road under conditions 
essentially as above, except that the miaterial was a grav- 
elly soil, was 28 cts. per cu. yd. 

Cost of Grading Roads With Road Machine, — Mr. 

Frank F. Rogers gives the following data on work done at 
Port Huron, Mich.: A street was to be macadamized with 
a strip of macadam 9 ft. wide and about 5 ins. thick after 
rolling. The earth was sand and sandy loam overlying 
clay. The side ditches had already been made, and the 
street was already well turnpiked (crowned), so that the 
grading consisted merely in preparing a bed for the macad- 
am and in making earth shoulders to hold the stone. For 
this purpose a common road machine was used, first to cut 



146 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

off the high places and fill the hollows by setting the blade 
at right angles with the center line of the street. Then, 
to form the shoulders and cut the crown of the subgrade, 
the blade was set at a slight angle so as to crowd enough 
earth to one side of the 9-ft. strip, forming first one shoul- 
der, then the other. Stakes were set 1 ft. outside the 9-ft. 
strip to give line in operating the grader. The edges of 
the shoulders were afterward trimmed by hand with a 
shovel while the subgrade was being rolled with a steam 
roller. The grading cost $85 per mile in this soft sandy 
soil, where no ditching or turnpiking was done. 

On another stretch of road, in sand, it was necessary to 
break up, re-grade, and trim the ditches to line, as well as 
to make the shoulders for the 9-ft. macadam. This cost 
about $360 per mile. 

Two teams, a driver for each team and another man to 
operate the grader were used. Each team and driver re- 
ceived $3.50 for 10 hrs. and the other man received $1.50. 

Cost of CrusHing and Hauling Cobblestone. — ^On the 

work just described Mr. Rogers states that a 9 x 18-in. jaw 
crusher was used, with a rotary screen having three sizes 
of openings, %-in., li/^-in. and 2i^-in. This crusher aver- 
aged 6% cu. yds. of cobbles crushed per hour while actual- 
ly working. In a run of 9% cords (4.5 cu. yds.) of cobbles 
the output was 5.7 cu. yds., or an increase of 25% in volume 
after crushing. 

The crushed stone was hauled from the bins in large 
spreader wagons, the steam roller hauling five of these 
wagons in a train, a distance of % mile to the dumping 
place. On the best day, 76 cu. yds. were hauled % mile, 
at a cost of 13 cts. per cu. yd. for hauling, distributed thus: 

. Wages of engineman $2.00 

Wages of helper 1-50 

Fuel 2.00 

Interest and depreciation taken at 16% ($400 per 
year) and distributed over 100 working days 4.00 

Total daily cost $9.50 



ROADS, PATEMEXTS, WALKS. 147 

The roller and wide-tired spreader wagons were made by 
the Port Huron (Mich.) Engine & Thresher Co. The man 
who dumped the wagons was able to keep the road well 
trimmed at all times. 

Mr. Rogers says in a letter to me: ''The road roller 
sometimes hauled five wagons, but not always. It was 
not always convenient, as some of the wagons were 
often at the crusher loading, when trips would be made 
with three or four wagons, whichever was most con- 
venient. The wagons held 3 cu. yds. when level full. Three 
wagons would haul about 10 cu. yds. 

"The crusher had a 9 x ISrin. jaw opening. The stone 
was thrown from the cars in a large pile which must have 
been 100 ft. long at times. One man did the special feed- 
ing, that is saw that the jaws were kept full, but six men 
were required to wheel stone when running at the full 
capacity of the crusher. Besides these there was one fore- 
man and an engineer. The wheelers were required to dump 
their wheelbarrows directly into the receiving hopper, thus 
leaving as little work as possible for the feeder. I have 
since found crushers that will crush Michigan cobbles with 
very little trouble from breakages, which were very annoy- 
ing on this work." 

On this work, in one case, the macadam was made of 
broken stone 6 ins. thick (measured loose before rolling) 
bound with a 2.11-in. (loose measure) layer of screenings; 
and in another case, the loose broken stone was 5.35 ins. 
thick, bound with 1.5-in. layer of screenings. The first 
named road cost $2,600 a mile, 9 ft. wide, exclusive of 
grading, but the grading cost only $85 a mile, as above 
given. This was an unusually low cost for grading, as the 
road was level, already ditched, and soft sand. While some 
would call the macadam a 6-in. macadam, strictly speak- 
ing it was not, since the 6 ins. were loose measure before 
rolling. 

Cost of Resurfacing Old Limestone Macadam. — In 

Engineering News, June 6, 1901, I gave the following data 
to show that the intermittent method of repairing macadam 
is the most economic. The data were taken from my time 



148 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

books and can be relied upon as being well within the 
probable cost of similar work done by contract under a 
good foreman. It will be noted that the cost of operating 
the roller is estimated at $10 per day. This includes Inter- 
est and depreciation, as well as fuel and engineman's wages. 

The road was worn unevenly, but as it still had sufficient 
metal left, very little new metal was added. 

The roller used was a 12-ton Buffalo Pitts, provided with 
steel picks on the rear wheels. It required 80 hours of 
rolling with the picks in to break up the crust of a surface 
19,400 sq. yds. in area, 240 sq. yds. being loosened per hour. 
The crust was exceedingly hard and at times the picks 
rode upon the surface without sinking in, so that a lighter 
roller would probably have been far less efficient. In fact 
a 10-ton roller had been used a few years previous for the 
same purpose at more than double the expense per sq. yd., 
I am told. The picks simply open up cracks in the crust 
to a depth of about 4 ins. and it is necessary to follow the 
roller with a gang of laborers using hand picks to complete 
the loosening process. The labor of loosening and spread- 
ing anew the metal was 1,880 man-hours, or a trifle more 
than 10 sq. yds. per man-hour. About 60% of this time was 
spent in picking and 40% in respreading with shovels and 
potato hooks. 

After the material had been respread, a short section was 
drenched with a sprinkling cart, water being put on in 
such abundance that when the roller came upon the metal, 
the screenings which had settled to the bottom in the 
spreading process were floated up into the interstices. The 
roller and sprinkling cart were engaged only 63 hours in 
this process, 300 sq. yds. being rolled per hour; an excep- 
tionally fast rate. The rapidity of rolling was due to four 
factors: 1. The great abundance of water used, the water 
haul being very short. 2. The unyielding foundation (tel- 
ford) beneath. 3. The abundance of screenings and fine 
dust, the road not having been swept for some time. 4. 
The great weight of the roller, which was run at a high 
rate of speed. I am not prepared to say that longer rolling 
would not have secured a harder surface, but I doubt very 
much whether it would. The metal, I should add, was hard 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 149 

limestone. Summing up we find the cost of resurfacing 
this road per sq. yd. to have been as follows: 

Cts. sq. yd. 

Picking with roller at $1 per hour 0.4 

Picking by hand labor at 20 cts. per hour 1.2 

Respreading by hand labor at 20 cts. per hour 0.8 

Rolling with roller at $1 per hour 0.33 

Sprinkling with cart at 40 cts. per hour 0.13 

Foreman 143 hours at 30 cts. for 19,400 sq. yds 0.44 

Total 3.30 

At this rate a macadam road 16 ft. wide can be resur- 
faced for little more than $300 a mile. The frequency with 
which such resurfacing is necessary will, of course, depend 
upon several factors, chief of whieh are the amount of 
traffic and the quality of road metal. I should say that five 
years would not be far from the average for a country road 
built of hard limestone. Unless the road has had an excess 
of metal used in its construction, new metal should be added 
at the time of resurfacing to replace that worn out. 

I am unable to see how any system of eontinuous repair 
with its puttering work here and there can be as econom- 
ical as work done in the manner above described. I would 
not be understood, however, as favoring an entire neglect 
of the road between repair periods. At times of heavy 
rains and snows, ditches and culverts need attention and 
there should be some one whose duty it is to look after 
such matters. What I do question is the economy of hav- 
ing a man continuously at work putting in patches upon the 
road. 

Cost of Repairing Sandstone Macadam. — In Engineer- 
ing News, Sept. 19, 1901, I described the method of repair- 
ing macadam streets in the Village of Albion, N. Y. The 
following is an abstract of the article: 

"Using the method that I am about to describe, Mr. P. 
J. Stock succeeded in picking, resurfacing and rolling a 
stretch of sandstone macadam 18 ft. wide by 1,000 ft. long 
in two ten-hour days; one day in spiking up the old sur- 
face with the picks in the steam roller and one day in re- 



150 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



rolling. As the surface was loosened to a depth of about 
4 ins., it will be seen that over 200 cu. yds. of maeadam 
were compacted by the 15-ton roller in 10 hrs. The point 
to which I wish to call attention is not so much the extra- 
ordinary rapidity of the rolling as the very ingenious 
method devised by Mr. Stock for completing the loosening 
of the macadam after cracking it up with the roller spikes. 




5ide Eleva+ion. 
PIG. 7. 



For this purpose Mr. Stock built a heavy harrow, similar 
to those used on farms. Fig. 7, showing its detail de- 
sign. By turning the harrow upside down it rides on the 
runners shown in the figure, and is thus transported when 
not in use. A heavy team of horses is used to drag the 
sharp-pointed harrow over the macadam after it has been 
loosened as much as possible with the spikes of the steam 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 151 

roller. The spikes in the harrow not only complete the 
hreaking-up of the crust as well as could be done by men 
using picks, ibut in addition the spikes spread the loos- 
ened stone, filling up all low places. 

"The total cost of resurfacing was: 

Per sq. yd. 

Roller and engineer at $1 per hour picking 0.5 ct. 

Roller and engineer at $1 per hour re-rolling 0.5 ct. 

Sprinkling, with cart, 40 cts. an hour (1 day) 0.2 ct. 

Harrowing, team and driver 30 cts. an hr, (2 days) . . 0.3 ct. 

Total 1.5 cts. 

"At this rate 'a macadam road 16 ft. wide and a mile long 
can be resurfaced for less than $140, or about half the cost 
given above. The cost of resurfacing has, therefore, been 
only $30 per mile per annum! Yet we are told that it is 
practically impossible to maintain macadam roads and pay 
interest on investment for $320 per mile per annum. (See 
discussion in Einglneering News, April 25 and May 9, 1901.) 

"The record made by Mr. Stock is indeed a remarkable 
one, and a record that few villages may hope to see at- 
tained unless by accident they secure an able Street Com- 
missioner. In addition to the labor item there were some 
75 cu. yds. of stone furnished, which it was estimated 
would bring the road up to its original crown. The stone 
cost about $60, delivered, and was spread by two men in 
two days at a cost of $6. By using a Shuart grader the 
item of spreading could have been reduced to $1.50. 

"For new materials we have, therefore, a trifle over $60 
per mile per annum, making a total of about $90 per mile 
per annum for labor and material for resurfacing a Medina 
sandstone road. Of course, the loss of material by wear 
was not accurately measured, but it was less rather than 
more than the amount put on for repairs. At this rate, 
the annual vertical wear was about 0.2-in. over the whole 
surface. 

"Let it be remembered that this was a main traveled 
street, where farmers' teams enter the village, and that the 
residence streets may last another five years without re- 



152 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

surfacing. In the face of such facts as these, I ask engi- 
neers who have condemned sandstone macadam for vil- 
lage streets and roads to give something besides ahstract 
reasoning as a basis for their contention." 

Cost of Scarifying Macadam. — Mr. Thomas Aitken is 
authority for the following English data: 

When a macadam surface is to be picked, or scarified, by 
hand, soak the crust with water to soften it, unless it is 
the intention to screen the old materials. The depth to 
which the macadam is loosened by picks is usually 'about 
2% ins. One man will loosen at the following rate per 
day: 

Soft macadam 33 sq. yds. 

Hard macadam 20 sq. yds. 

Very hard (steam rolled) macadam 12 to 15 sq. yds. 

Large heavy harrows, or scarifiers, are much used in 
England, for resurfacing macadam. They are designed to 
be pulled along by a steam roller, ripping up the surface 
as they go. A scarifier with 3 teeth, spaced 6 ins. apart, 
is commonly used and will break up the macadam to a 
depth of 4 Ins., at the rate of 300 sq. yds. per hour, if not 
interrupted by traffic. With the interruptions that ordi- 
narily occur on a country road, 150 to 200 sq. yds. per hour 
is a fair average. Mr. Aitken gives one record of 650 
sq. yds. per hr., loosening to a depth of 3 ins., using a 
3-tooth scarifier drawn by a 15-ton roller. Each set of 
teeth, or tines, will scarify only 150 sq. yds. before sharp- 
ening; and it costs 5 to 10 cts. to sharpen each tine. A 
scarifier will do the work of, 100 men. 

Cost of Repairing Macadam in Mass. — ^^The 1904 an- 
nual report of the Mass. Highway Commission is briefly 
abstracted in Engineering News, Apr. 13, 1905, p. 416. The 
repairing on 550 miles of macadam roads averaged less 
than $100 per mile for the year 1904, although the first of 
these roads was 10 years old. 

In the Report for 1902, which is also abstracted in E'ngi- 
neering News, Apr. 23, 1903, p. 379, data on the cost of re- 
pairing three heavily traveled roads leading into cities are 
given. 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 153 

Per Tons 

sq. yd. stone Cost 

Age, per per per ton 

Bead. yrs. Length. Width, year, sq. yd.. In 

cts. per yr. place. 

Leicester 6 3,150 24 5.17 .03 ^1.70 

WestFitchhurg... 7 2,200 15 5.15 .023 2.23 

Beverly 6 2,150 18 5.20 .03 1.80 

None of these roads had been repaired since the day it 
was built. The Leicester road leads into Worcester, and 
is much more heavily traveled than ordinary country 
roads. Even so, the cost of repairs per mile per year on 
these roads, for a width of 16 ft, is only $160. 

Cost of Resurfacing Macadam. — In Trans. Am. Soc. 
C. E., Vol. 41, 1899, Mr. F. G. Cudworth gives the following 
data: An old macadam road was resurfaced with trap 
rock to the depth of 3 ins. after rolling with a 10-ton steam 
roller. It required 3.9 ins. of loose trap and 2.1 ins. of 
screenings to make the 3 ins. of compacted macadam, ac- 
cording to Mr. Cudworth, but there must have been an 
error In his estimate of the final thickness of the resur- 
facing (and it is a very easy matter to err in measuring 
rolled macadam). Possibly he did not measure the thick- 
ness of loose screenings left on the macadam, for 2.1 ins. 
of screenings is more than sufficient to fill the voids in 
3 ins. of compacted stone. The steam roller averaged 472 
sq. yds. or 40 cu. yds. of macadam per 10 hrs., at a cost 
of 2% cts. per sq. yd. for rolling and sprinkling. The cost 
of rolling and sprinkling was distributed as follows, and 
it should be noted that it does not include any allowance 
for rent of roller. On the other hand it is rare that a fire- 
man is employed in addition to the engineman, and it is 
not always that the full wages of a night watchman are 
charged to the roller: 

Engineman $3.00 

Fireman 1.50 

Coal and oil 4.00 

Sprinkler 3.00 

Watchman 1.50 

Total per day $13.00 



154 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The total cost of resurfacing was as follows, not including 

cost of stone: ^^ 

Cte. per sq. yd. 

Scraping and sweeping 2.00 

Picking up old surface 1.50 

Spreading stone 2.00 

Rolling and sprinkling , . . . . 2.77 

Total per sq. yd 8.27 

Mr. W. 0. Foster gives the following data: It was found 
that 7.38 ins. of loose trap rock on an old macadam pave- 
ment were rolled down to a thickness of 6 ins. under a 
12-ton roller, a ratio of 1% cu. yds. of loose stone to 1 cu. 
yd. rolled. It was found in another case that 5.67 ins. of 
loose trap were rolled down to 4 ins., a ratio 1.42 to 1. 
The stone in both cases was trap, 1% to 2^4 -in. size. It 
was found that 1 cu. yd. of blue limestone screenings, suf- 
ficient to cover the rolled trap to a depth of 1.7 ins. over 
21 sq. yds., was sufficient to bind 21 sq. yds. of 4-in. or 
6-in. macadam. The loose stone and the screenings were 
measured in cars. I do not think that 5.67 ins. of loose 
trap can possibly be rolled down to 4 ins., furthermore 
I am sure that it takes more screenings to bind a 6-in. 
macadam than a 4-in. macadam. Mr. Foster says 
that in this work a 12-ton roller averaged 314 sq. yds., or 
52 cu. yds., of 6-in. macadam per 10-hr. day. 

Cost of Sprinkling Streets. — ^Mr. J. J. R. Croes says 
that to keep down the dust in Central Park, N. Y., from 
Apr. 1 to Oct. 31, about 100 cu. ft. of water were used 
daily per 1,000 sq. yds. of macadam, the greatest amount 
on any one day being 157 cu. ft. per 1,000 sq. yds. Carts 
holding 41 cu. ft. of water were used. Mr. E. P. North 
states that to keep down the dust on an earth road, water 
applied twice daily, there were 143 cu. ft. of water used 
daily per 1,000 sq. yds. A sprinkling cart holding 60 cu. ft. 
covered 850 sq. yds. 

Mr. E. W. Howe gives the cost of sprinkling park roads 
(macadam) as follows per mile per year: Water (16 cts. 
per 1,000 gals.), $187; teaming, $533. The road was sprink- 



ROADS, PAYEME^TS, WALKS. 155 

led 10 times daily to keep the dust down, a sprinkler with 
fine holes being used. The cost of maintaining these roads 
was about $200 per mile per year, distributed thus: Screen- 
ings, $130; teaming, $50; labor, $20. As soon as a rut or 
a hole started, a small quantity of screenings was applied. 
This is a very expensive method of repairing, but not an 
uncommon one. 

Cost of Telford Roads. — ^A telford road consists of a 
"bottoming," 6 to 12 ins. thick, made of rough stone blocks 
supporting a macadam surface 3 to 6 ins. thick. If the stone 
for the "bottoming" is limestone or sandstone that comes out 
in thin layers, readily shaped with a hammer into rec- 
tangular bloeks, the "bottoming" is laid like a rough stone 
block pavement. But if the stone is a granite or trap that 
breaks out in irregular chunks, or if cobblestones are used, 
no attempt is made to lay a rough block pavement; and 
the "bottoming" then becomes a sort of macadam itself, 
consisting of large and small pieces. This last type of 
telford is the kind so largely used in the towns of north- 
ern New Jersey where trap rock is available. 

The typical New Jersey telford is made of a "bottoming" 
6 ins. thick, consisting of chunks of trap rock broken with 
hammers after delivery on the road until no chunk is more 
than 6 ins. thick. The spalls are packed in between the 
larger stone, and earth is shoveled over the stone from the 
side of the road until few stones are visible. Then a 5,500- 
Ib. horse-roller is run over the stone before the 3-in. 
macadam is placed upon it. The macadam is bound with 
earth, and finally a thin layer of screenings is placed over 
all — riiore for appearance sake than for usefulness. Tlie 
cost of quarrying the trap rock for the "bottoming" and 
the cost of crushing the portion of it that is used for the 
macadam surface, will be found on page 128. 

In building a telford pavement on a New Jersey village 
street, the pavement was made 16 ft. wide. The stones for 
the bottoming were dumped from wagons, and a gang of 
6 men broke the larger ones and placed them all by hand 
carefully so as to secure a compact "bottoming" 6 ins. 
thick. This gang of 6 men averaged 4 cu. yds. of bottom- 
ing laid per man per 10-hr. day, at a cost of 40 cts. per 



156 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

cu. yd. for placing the ''bottoming'* after delivery. It took 
1.2 cu. yds. of loose stones measured in the wagon to make 
1 cu. yd. of "bottoming." 

The macadam surface would have cost as much as any 
other macadam of equal thickness (3 ins.) had it not been 
for the use of earth as a binder instead of screenings. It 
took 1.2 cu. yds. of broken stone to make 1 cu. yd. of 
rolled stone, for a horse roller was used, and it did not 
compact the stone as much as a steam roller would. The 
cost of this broken stone can be estimated by data already 
given. The cost of rolling the "bottoming" and the mac- 
adam isurface were not kept separately; but rolling both 
was as follows: 

The 2%-tion roller, drawn by a team, averaged 150 lin. 
ft. of roadway 16 ft. wide per day 10 hrs., which is equiva- 
lent to 90 sq. yds. per day, at a cost of 4 cts. per sq. yd. 
By far the greater part of the rolling was confined to the 
3-in. macadam. The team on the roller was taken off from 
time to time and hitched to a sprinkling cart. Water for 
sprinkling the macadam was obtained from a nearby hy- 
drant. Summarizing the costs, we have the following: 

Per cu. yd. 
Cost of bottoming (6 ins. thick). in place. 

Quarrying and loading 1.2 cu. yds. at 40 cts $0.48 

Hauling 2 miles, 1.2 cu. yds. at 40 cts 0.48 

Placing 0.40 

Total per cu. yd. in place $1.36 

'Cost of macadam surface (3 ins. thick). 

Quarry and crushing 1.2 cu. yds. at 55 cts $0.66 

Hauling 2 miles, 1.2 cu. yds. at 40 cts 0.48 

Spreading 1.2 cu. yds. at 12 cts 0.14 

Shoveling on earth for binder, 0.4 cu. yds. at 12 cts. 0.05 
Sprinkling and rolling, 4 cts. per sq. yd 0.48 

Total per cu. yd. in place $1.81 

The cost per square yard, exclusive of grading the road- 
way, was: 



R0AD8, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 157 

Per sq. yd. 

1-6 cu. yd. bottoming at $1.36 $0.23 

1-12 cu. yd. macadam at $1.81 0.15 

Total $0.38 

Daborers were paid 15 ots. per hr., and teams 35 cts. per 
hr. The cost of foremen is not included. The cost of the 
quarrying is given on page 128. 

The foregoing relates to trap rock. If limestone or sand- 
stone occurring in thin beds is quarried by wedging, and 
is roughly scabbled and laid like a paving, the cost of a 
telford "bottoming" is practically the same as for the 
slope-wall paving given in section on Masonry. The cost 
of the macadam surface may be estimated from data given 
on previous pages. 

Cost of Laying Two Brick Pavements.— In Engineer- 
ing News, July 24, 1902, I originally gave most of the fol- 
lowing data on brick pavements: 

The so-called "standard brick" for house building is 2^4, 
X 8^/4 X 4 ins., and for a time brick for paving purposes 
were also made of the same dimensions. Within recent 
years the size of the standard brick for paving purposes 
has become 2i^ x 8% x 4 ins., and such bricks are common- 
ly called "pavers." A larger size, 3^/4 x SV2 x i ins., is 
also much used, and is known as "block." Some variations 
from these dimensions occur, as in Hallwood block, which 
is 3 X 9 X 4 ins.; and as neither the engineer nor the con- 
tractor can be sure of the exact size of brick that will be 
delivered, it is always necessary to secure from manufac- 
turers a statement as to the sizes they make. 

When the sizes are known there is a factor of uncer- 
tainty to the inexperienced, and that is the thickness 
of the grouted or tarred joints between bricks as 
ordinarily laid. I have found as the average of a large 
number of measurements that the thickness of the aver- 
age joint is about % in., unless the pavers are made with 
projecting lugs to give a wider joint. 

The accompanying table gives such data as will ordinar- 
ily serve in estimating the number of brick that will be 
required. Brick are occasionally laid with extremely close 



158 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

joints about one-sixteenth inch, in which case about 3% 
more "pavers'* laid on edge will be required than given in 
the table, but close laying is not only expensive work for 
the contractor, but objectionable also in that it is then 
impossible to fill the joints perfectly. For street pave- 
ments the bricks or blocks are laid on edge (making a brick 
pavement 4 ins. thick), but for sidewalks they are usually 
laid flatwise. I believe that in residence streets the bricks 
should usually be laid flatwise for true economy's sake. 

'—No. of Brick Per Square Yard.-> 

With M-in. No Allowance 

Size of Brick. Joints. for Joints. 

2)^x8x4, laid flatwise 38.7 40.5 

2)^x8x4. laid edgewise 67.1 72.0 

2M X 8M X 4, laid flatwise 37.5 89.3 

2»^x8Mx4, laidedgewis© 65.1 69.8 

2>ix 8^x4, laid flatwise 86.4 89.3 

2>ix8Hx 4, laid edgewise 57.2 61.0 

3>ix8>^x 4, laid flatwise 36.4 38.1 

3KX 8^x4, laid edgewise 44.5 46.9 

3 X X 4, laid flatwise 34.4 36.0 

8 X 9 X 4, laid edgewise 45.5 48.0 

Having obtained the price per thousand (M) for the 
paving brick, f. o. b. factory, and freight rate to destina- 
tion, the weight of the bricks must be known to estimate 
total cost f. 0. b. cars at destination. The specific gravity 
of paving brick ranges from 1.9 to 2.7. Tests of 12 Ohio 
makes show a range of 1.95 to 2.25. 

Assuming a specific gravity of 2.2, a square yard of brick 
pavers 4 ins. thick would weigh 385 lbs., and a square foot 
would weigh 43 lbs., as laid with %-in. joints. Whence, by 
taking from the bidding sheet the number of square yards 
of pavement and multiplying by 385, the total weight is 
readily ascertained; or, for all practical purposes, divide 
the number of square yards by 5, and the quotient will be 
the number of short tons of freight. 

It is convenient to remember that a "paver" (2^^ x 8% x 

4 ins.) weighs about 6% lbs. and a "block" (3% x 8% x 
4 ins.) weighs 8% lbs. These are actual averages of sev- 
eral makes of New York State bricks that I have used. 

In unloading pavers from a flat car, one man will read- 
ily throw 10,000 pavers in 10 hrs. out to a man on a wagon, 
who will stack them in place. Where a large number of 
men are working under a foreman, 15,000 pavers will be 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS, 159 

handled per man per day. In unloading the wagon, one 
man in the wagon tossing out brick to a man stacking 
them along the curb is required. With wages at 15 cts per 
hour, the cost of unloading cars is therefore 30 cts. per M, 
and a like amount for unloading wagons. 

If the wagon haul is short, it will pay to have an extra 
wagon at each end of the haul to save team time, for it 
takes two men from 20 to 30 minutes to load and the same 
length of time to unload a wagon holding 1,000 pavers. 
Over paved streets 1,000 pavers, weighing 3l^ tons, are a 
good wagon load, and it will tax a team to the utmost to 
pull such a load over earth a short distance at the end 
of the haul. Over good earth roads about 500 pavers are 
a fair load. Since a team at a walk travels about 2i^ miles 
per hour, or 220 ft. per minute, the cost of hauling over 
paved streets is about 30 cts. per mile per M of pavers, 
wages being 35 cts. per hour for team and driver, to which 
must be added about 25 cts. per M for lost time of team 
(40 minutes) during loading and unloading when extra 
wagons are not provided. 

A brick paving gang generally consists of about 15 men, 
whose duties are as follows: 

4 pavers laying brick; 

3 laborers loading barrows and wheeling brick; 

1 laborer spreading sand cushion on concrete; 
3 laborers grouting; 

2 laborers ramming; 

1 laborer raising sunken brick, etc.; 
1 foreman. 

Such a gang will lay 2,000 to 3,000 pavers per hour, which 
is equivalent to 5,000 to 7,500 bricks laid per brick layer in 
10 hrs. 

In paving a street with shale brick, at Jackson, Mich., 
there were about 200,000 bricks used for 3,500 sq. yds., or 
57.1 bricks per sq. yd. The bricks were 2% x 4:% x 8 ins., 
with rounded corners. On a street 42 ft. wide, six brick- 
layers, supplied with brick by helpers, laid 70,000 bricks in 
9 hrs. or 11,666 bricks per bricklayer. The ordinary aver- 



160 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

age, however, was 7,000 bricks per bricklayer per day un- 
der favorable conditions. Note that the average day's out- 
put was only about two-thirds the best day's output. 

The average wheelbarrow load is about 40 "pavers," or 
270 lbs., and is seldom more than 45 "pavers," or 305 lbs. 
Such loads are readily wheeled over level runways and 
even up a short slope of 1 in 7. A man will readily load a 
barrow in 1% mins., at which rate, if he were doing noth- 
ing else but load barrows he would average 14,000 "pavers" 
loaded in 10 hrs. But the men who load the bricks usually 
wheel them to place and dump them. Where the distance 
to be wheeled is about 40 ft., it takes about % min. to go 
and return plus another % min. lost in dumping the bar- 
row and in brief rests; so that a fair day's work is 10,000 
"pavers" loaded and wheeled 40 ft. 

The following is the actual cost on two different jobs: 

Cost per sq. yd. per hour, 
when gang lays.- 



4 payers at 25 cents per hour, each 

8 laborers wheeling at 15 cents per hour 

1 laborer spreading sand 

3 laborers grouting 

2 laborers ramming 

1 laborer raising sunken brick 

1 foreman at 30 cents per hour 

Total 8.0 5.3 

The above data are based upon the writer's experience, 
the lower cost being on a large job, but with union pavers 
who were not fast workers; the higher cost being on a 
small job where the work was finished before the force 
could be well organized. 

It is frequently desirable to know what the cost will be 
of taking up, cleaning old brick and relaying. A gang of 
men, working leisurely, "by the day for the city," ac- 
complished the following: Each laborer chipped the tar 
off 500 to 700 bricks in eight hours. Replacing a strip of 
pavement 4 ft. wide over a sewer required a gang of 17 
men, employed as follows, after the pavement had been 
removed and concrete relaid: 



2,000 


3,000 


pavers. 


pavers. 


eta. 


Cts. 


2.9 


1.9 


1.3 


.8 


.4 


.3 


1.3 


.9 


.8 


.5 


.4 


.3 


.9 


.6 



LCADS, PArEMLXTS, VTALKS. IGl 



3 men toothing or chipping out bats. 

6 pavers 

2 men furnishing brick 

2 men ramming, etc 

4 men melting and pouring tar 



Wages for 


Cost pe] 


Shrs. 


sq.. yd. 


$4.50 


$0.08 


15.00 


.25 


3.00 


.05 


3.00 


.05 


6.00 


.10 



Total $31.50 $0.58 

The average per eight-hour day by the above gang was 
60 sq. yds., the best day's work being 70 sq. yds. 

It seems almost incredible that the cost of such repav- 
ing was 53 cts. a sq. yd., but it well illustrates the in- 
efliciency of day labor for a city. 

The following is a summary of the cost of paving with 
brick laid on edge, wages being 25 cts. per hour for pavers 
and 15 cts. for laborers: 

Cost 
per sq. yd. 

57 "pavers" at $10 per M $0.57 

Hauling 1% miles over earth roads 0.06 

Laying pavers, including labor of grouting 0.08 

Materials for grout 0.05 

1-36 cu. yd. sand cushion at $1.08 a cu. yd 0.03 

Plank to protect concrete 0.01 

Total net cost $0.80 

To this, of course, must be added the cost of grading 
and the cost of a concrete base. Grading seldom costs more 
than 30 cts. per cu. yd., or 10 cts. per sq. yd., where the 
average cut is 1 ft. deep. The concrete base seldom costs 
more than $3 per cu. yd., or 50 cts. per sq. yd. Hence the 
total actual cost of a brick pavement, including grading 
and base, is about $1.40 per sq. yd., exclusive of contractor's 
profits, when prices and wages are as above. 

The grout in these cases was mixed in the proportion of 
2% bbls. of Portland cement to 1 cu. yd. of sand, or in 
the ratio of 1:2^, a barrel of cement being considered 
to be 4^ cu. ft The cost of a cubic yard of this grout, in- 
cluding the labor of mixing and spreading it, was as fol- 
lows: 



162 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

1 cu. yd. sand at $1.00 $1.00 

21/3 bbls. cement at $1.90 4.75 

12 hrs. labor at 15 cts .... 1.80 

T^tal per cu. yd $7.55 

1 cu. yd. of grout filled the joints in 120 sq. yds. of pave- 
ment; hence the cost was 6^/4 cts. per sq. yd. for cement 
grout in joints, including labor. Where *'blocks" are used, 
1 cu. yd. of grout covers 160 sq. yds. of pavement, reduc- 
ing the cost to less than 5 cts. per sq. yd., when prices are 
as above given. Grout is often mixed richer than in this 
case. To ascertain the quantity of cement per cubic yard 
of grout for any given mixture, use the data on page 253. 

Cost of a Brick Pavement, Cliampaign, 111. — Mr. 

Charles Apple gives the following data on the cost of a 
brick pavement laid in 1903 at Champaign, 111. The work 
was done by contract, the contract price for grading being 
23 cts. per cu. yd., and for brick pavement on concrete 
base, $1.29 per sq. yd. 

The grading was done with drag-scoop scrapers, wheel- 
scrapers and wagons, each being used as demanded by the 
length of haul. Earth was loosened fwith plows to within 
3 ins. of subgra.de and this last layer then removed with 
pick and shovel. 

The cost of removing the last 3 ins. was 2 cts. per sq. yd. 
with labor at $1.75 per day of 10 hours. There was a total 
of 26,715 cu. yds. of grading, and there were 38,504 sq. yds. 
of pavement. 

The subgrade was compacted with a horse-roller weigh- 
ing 150 lbs. per lin. in. at an average cost of about 0.05 cts. 
per sq. yd. 

The concrete foundation was 6 ins. thick, composed of 
1 part natural cement, 3 parts of S£ind and gravel, and 3 
parts of broken stone. All the materials were mixed with 
shovels, and were thrown into place from the hoard upon 
which the mixing was done. The material was brought to 
the steel mixing board in wheelbarrows from piles where 
it had been placed in the middle of the street, the length 
of haul being usually from 30 to 60 ft. 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 



163 



When the concrete base had set, a sand cushion IV4, ins. 
thick was placed upon it, and upon this the brick wearing 
surface was laid. 

The cost of the brick wearing surface is given in the 
following table, and is based upon the assumption that 
1,000 paving -blocks will lay 25 sq .yds. of pavement, or 
40 blocks per sq. yd. This ratio was determined by actual 
count after the pavement was laid. To this cost will have 
to be added something for rejected bricks, the amount de- 
pending upon how closely the inspection is done at the 
kilns. 



Ooat ol e-ln. Concrete Base for Pavement. 



No. of Sq. yds. 



Total 



men. per day. wages. 



Boiling subgrade (1 roller, 2 
teams, 1 driver) 

Mixing and tamping concrete : 

Turning with shovels 

Throwing into place 

Handling cement 

Wetting with hose 

* Tamping 

Grading concrete. 

Wheeling stone 

Wheeling gravel 

Foreman 



8,000 



Total. 



6 
4 
2 
1 
2 
1 
6 
4 
1 

27 



900 



$4.75 

12.00 
8.00 
3.50 
1.75 
3.50 
1.75 

10.50 
7.00 
4.00 

$52.00 



Cost per 
sq. yd. 

$0.0005 



Total labor per sq. yl 

For 1 sq. yd. : Unit Price. Quantity. 

Cement $0.50 a bbl. i barrel 

Sand and gravel. . . 1.00 cu. yd. ^^ cu. yd. 

Broken stone 1.40 cu. yd. ^ cu. yd. 



$0.0580 
$0.0585 



Cost. 

$0.10 
.10 
.14 



$0.34 

Cost for material and labor per sq. yd $0.3985 

This is practically 40 cts. per sq. yd., or $2.40 per cu. yd. 
of concrete for materials and labor. It is evident from 
the above quantities that a cement barrel was assumed 
to hold about 4.5 cu. ft, hence the cement was measured 
loose in making the 1:3:3 concrete. I am very much in- 
clined to doubt the accuracy of the above given quan- 
tities of stone, gravel and cement. It will be noted 
that the labor cost of making and placing the concrete 
was only 35 cts. per cu. yd., wages being nearly 
$1.85 a day. 'This is so extremely low that I doubt the ac- 
curacy of the measurement of the work done. In fact I 



164 EANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

do not hesitate to say that no gang of men ever made 
any considerable amount of concrete by hand at the rate 
of 5% cu. yds. per man per day. 

Cost of Brick Block Wearing Surface. 
(40 blocks per sq. yd.) 

Force 
working. 
Labor : 

Spreading sand cushion 1 man 

Brick, cars to wagons 10 men 

Hauling, 1 mile 8 teams 

Unloading, curb line 8 men 

Wheeling brick to layers. . . 2 men 

Laying brick 1 man 

Sweeping, inspecting and 

filling joints, sand 1 man 

Rolling pavement 1 team 



Material: Amount. Price. 

Sand cushion i^ yd- $1.00 cu. yd f.0277 

Brick, Lo.b. destination 40 sq. yds. 16.00 per M 6400 

Sand filler 0023 



Amount of 
material 
handled 
per day. 


Total 
dally 
wages. 


Cost 

per 

BqTd. 

cts. 


300 sq. yds. 

300 - 

40 M. brick 

40 

40 '• 

12 


fl.75 
17.50 
24.00 
14.00 
3.50 
2.50 


.57 
1.75 
2.40 
1.40 
1.15 

.83 


450 sq. yds. 
800 




1.76 
8.00 


.39 
.37 

8.86 



Total cost for material per sq. yd., cts 67.00 



Total cost, material and labor per sq. yd., ctfl 75.87 

Summary of Costs of Payement. 

Grading a sq. yd. at contract price of 23 cts. cu. yd f 0.1000 

Concrete base, a sq. yd .3985 

Brick wearing surface, a sq. yd .7587 



Total cost, a sq. yd f 1.2572 

The contract price was $1.29. Note that the joints were 
filled with sand, and not with grout. 

It will be noted that one paver laid 12,000 per day, and 
that each man wheeling averaged 20,000 per day. These 
are such very high records that they should not be taken 
as averages upon which to base an estimate of cost. At the 
rate of 20,000 per day, a man would wheel 50 cu. yds. of 
solid bricks in 10 hrs.! This might possibly be done if the 
wheeler did not have to load his own barrow, and if the 
haul was very short. Usually, however, the wheeler must 
load his own barrow from piles along the curb. 

Each of the men loading blocks from cars to wagons 
averaged 12,000 blocks loaded in 10 hrs.; but each of the 
men unloading the wagons at the curb line averaged 5,000 
blocks in 10 hrs. 



ROADS, PAVEMENT.^, WALKS. 165 

Cost of a Brick Pavement in Minneapolis. — ^Mr. 
Irving E. Howe gives the following data on laying 17,000 
sq. yds. of brick pavement in 1897. The work was not done 
by contract, but by day labor. Six weeks were required 
with a force of about 65 men. An old cedar block pave- 
ment on a plank foundation had to be removed, and the 
street graded. The subgrade was rolled with a 7-ton horse 
roller. A 6-in. concrete foundation was then laid, in pro- 
portion of 1 natural cement, 2 sand, 5 broken stone. There 
were required 1.16 bbls. of natural cement per cu. yd. of 
concrete, at 76 cts. per bbl. The stone cost $1.15 cts. per 
cu. yd. delivered, and the sand cost 30 cts. per cu. yd. de- 
livered. The total cost of the concrete laid was $2.80 per 
cu. yd. Laborers mixing received $1.75 per day. The Pur- 
ington Paving Brick Co., of Galesburg, 111., furnished 198 
car loads of brick, 2% x 4 x 8-in. size, guaranteed to lay 56 
to the sq. yd., costing the city $15.50 per M, or 87 cts. per 
sq. yd. on the cars at Minneapolis. The manufacturers 
guaranteed the bricks for ten years. A 1-in. sand cushion 
was laid on the concrete. To secure a perfect crown 1-in. 
strips of wood were nailed to the concrete every 12 ft., from 
curb to curb. An iron shod straight edge or scraper was 
placed on these strips and dragged across the street to 
bring the sand cushion to a perfect surface. Then one of 
the wood strips was pulled up and moved ahead. After a 
block of bricks had been laid, they were rolled with a 
roller, broken bricks replaced, and the joints grouted un- 
der a special contract of 17i^ cts. per sq. yd. for the grout- 
ing. Exclusive of this grouting the actual cost per square 
yard was as follows: 

Per sq. yd. 

Removing old cedar paving $0,035 

Grading 0.032 

Concrete, natural cement, 6 ins. thick 0.467 

Planking over concrete, lumber, etc 0.008 

56 bricks at $15.55 per M 0.870 

Hauling brick 0.038 

Sand cushion, 1-in., at 65 cts. cu. yd 0.018 

Laying brick 0.032 

Total per sq. yd. (not incl. grout) $1,500 



166 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The pavers received $2 a day, laborers $1.75, teams $3.50. 
It will be noticed that the hauling cost 68^ cts. per M of 
bricks. 

Cost of a Brick Pavement, Memphis, Tenn. — Mr. Niles 
Meriwether gives the following data on the cost of 1,300 
sq. yds. of brick pavements laid by day labor (probably 
colored) in 1893: 

Per sq. yd. 

Removing old material and grading $0.23% 

Concrete base (8-in.): 

Natural cement, at $0.74 per bbl 0.19% 

Sand, at $1.25 per cu. yd 0.071^ 

Broken stone, at $1.87 per cu. yd 0.35% 

Ijabcr hauling stone and making concrete 0.15% 

Sand cushion 0.07 

62 paving bricks, at $18.20 per M. 1.13 

1-25 bbl. pitch, at $5.25 0.21 

Sand used in pitching 0.01 

Labor paving and pitching 0.15 

Total $2.58ya 

The cost of curbs distributed over the pavement added 10 
cts. more per sq. yd. Common laboTers were used to 
lay the bricks, at $1.25 to $1.50 per day of 8 hrs. 
The mortar for concrete was mixed 1 : 2, and enough mor- 
tar used to fill the voids in the stone. It took 1.36 bbls. of 
Louisville cement per cubic yard of concrete. On three 
other jobs of about the same size, the costs were practi- 
cally the same as above. On one street Hallwood blocks 
were used, requiring 50 blocks per sq. yd., and 1 bbl. of 
pitch for every 25 sq. yds. On one job, where Virginia pav- 
ing bricks were used, 56 bricks were required per sq. yd., 
and the labor cost of laying the brick and pitching the 
joints was 11 cts. per sq. yd. 

It will be noted that the cost of materials was unusually 
high, and that the labor was not efficient. 

Cost of Chipping Tar Off Bricks. — When a brick pave- 
ment with tar joints is taken up, the tar must be chipped 
off the old bricks before re-laying them. This is usually 
done with a hatchet, after cooling the bricks in a bucket 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 167 

or tub of water. As an average of a good many thousand 
brick thus cleaned, I found that one laborer could be 
counted upon to clean 60 bricks per hour. With wages at 
15 cts. per hr., this is equivalent to $2.50 per M for cleaning 
the bricks. 

Cost of a Stone Block Pavement.— In Engineering 
News, July 24, 1902, I originally gave the following data on 
stone block pavements: 

We have first to consider the dimensions of the blocks. 
When made of granite, they are split with wedges to tol- 
erably uniform sizes; but when of stratified rock, like 
Medina sandstone, a carload of blocks will show wide 
variation in size of individual stone. In depth, of course, 
the blocks must be quite uniform, and 6 ins. depth is usu- 
ally specified. In New York City 4 ins. is specified as th« 
maximum width of granite blocks, and it may be assumed 
as a certainty that they will not be found less than the 
maximum allowed, since to split them of less width out 
of granite would add materially to the cost per square yard. 
In Rochester, N. Y., 5% ins. is specified maximum width 
for Medina blocks but, due to the thin stratification of the 
stone, they frequently come 3 ins. in width. The maximum 
length specified is usually 12 ins., the mimimum 8 ins. 
Granite blocks which are quite uniform in size are sold 
by the 1,000, and sometimes by the square yard, laid. 
Medina blocks vary so in size that they are sold by the 
square yard. 

Joints are ordinarily about %-in. wide, and are filled first 
with gravel or sand, into which hot tar is poured. In New 
York City hot gravel is first poured in to the depth of 
2 ins. and hot tar poured upon it till voids are filled; then 
another 2-in. layer of gravel and tar is added, and so on 
until the joint is full. By this method one-third to half 
the volume of the joints is tar. In Rochester the Medina 
sandstone joints are first filled clear to the surface with 
hot sand (damp sand will not run) ; then men with pointed 
wire pins like a surveyor's ''sticknpin," used in chaining, 
force the sand down or pick it out if there is an excess, 
until the surface of the sand is li^ to 2 ins. below the sur- 
^ face of the block pavement. Hot tar is then poured i^ 



168 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

and fills the upper 2 ins. of the joint without penetrating 
to the bottom. This method gives as good satisfaction, ap- 
parently, as the New York method. 

In order to economize tar, which is quite an item, the 
writer would suggest a combination of the two methods; 
that is, first fill the joint with sand to within 2 ins. of the 
surface, then fill the upper 2 ins. with hot pea gravel 
(screened) and pour in tar. 

Cement grout has been used as a joint filler, but since a 
cement joint, once cracked, does not heal as a tar joint 
does, cement appears less adapted for filling the necessarily 
wide joints of a stone block pavement. 

With blocks 3% x 12 x 6 ins., there are 26 per sq. yd. 
where joints are %-in. and the area of joints is 13% of the 
total area, and the volume of joint filler is nearly 0.6 cu. 
ft. per sq. yd. of pavement. If tar is worth 10 cts. a gal- 
lon, or 75 €ts. a cu. ft, and one-third the vt)lume of the 
joint is tar, the cost for tar alone will be 0.6 x % 75 = 15 
cts. per sq. yd. of pavement. 

In unloading flat cars, the stone paving blocks may be 
slid down an iron chute into the wagon. One man will 
pitch out to one man stacking blocks up in the wagon 
about 10 sq. yds. of paving blocks (6 ins. deep) per hour, 
which, with wages at 15 cts. per hour, would cost 3 cts. 
per sq. yd. for unloading from cars to wagon. The cost 
of unloading wagon and stacking up on sidewalk will be 
about the same. 

Assuming that extra wagons are not used, but that the 
driver works at loading and unloading, we arrive at the 
total cost of hauling as follows: A wagon will carry not 
much to exceed 6 sq. yds. (6 ins. deep) of blocks weighing 
about 5,400 lbs. over paved streets, and if only one man 
assists the driver loading and unloading, it will require 
about one hour and a quarter to load and unload 6 sq. yds. 
With wages of driver and team at 35 cts. an hour and of 
laboTer at 15 cts., we have the fixed cost of loading and un- 
loading about 10 ots. a sq. yd. The cost of hauling will 
be about 5 cts. per sq. yd. per mile of haul (lead) over 
pavements and 10 cts. over earth roads. 

After the blocks are stacked up at the sides of the street 
they must be laid out on edge in the street in advance of • 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 169 

the pavers and assorted into sizes of uniform thickness, 

which laborers using wheelbarrows will do at a cost of 

about 3 cts. a sq. yd. Two skilled pavers, with one laborer 

as a helper to supply stone, form a gang. A paver will 

lay 5 to 8 sq. yds. an hour; 6 sq. yds. may be taken as an 

average for safe estimating, which, with pavers' wages at 

30 cts. an hour and labor at 15 cts., makes cost of laying 6 

cts. per sq. yd. Following the pavers, comes a gang of 3 

men ramming and raising sunken stone, 1 screening sand 

for joints, 2 heating sand and tar, 1 wheeling sand for 

joints, 1 sweeping sand into joints, 7 poking sand down 

into joints and digging out excess, 5 filling upper 2 ins. of 

joints with tar, making a gang of 20 men following the 

pavers, and with wages at 15 cts. an hour, such a gang 

covering 60 sq. yds. an hour, makes the cost of ramming 

and filling joints 6 cts. a sq. yd. Summing up, we have 

for the total labor cost: 

Per sq. yd. 

Loading and unloading inclusive of lost team time $0.10 

Hauling 1 mile 05 

Distributing blocks 03 

Laying 06 

Filling joints 06 

Foreman at 40 cts. per hr., 30 sq. yds 013 

2 water and errand boys 007 

Total labor $0.32 

Cost of Medina block pavement: Per sq. yd. 

Ys cu. yd. street excavation .... $0.15 

6-in. concrete foundation 50 

1-18 cu. yd, sand cushion in place at $1.08 06 

Medina block (6-in.) f. o. b. Albion, N. Y 1.15 

Freight to Rochester 07 

Unloading, hauling and laying 30 

1.5 gallons tar at 10 cts. a gallon 15 

1-50 cu. yd. sand for joints 02 

Total , ... ... . ...... .............. $2.40 

Add for contractor's profit 25 



Total, cost .,?,,.,,,, ..,,,.,....... $2.65 



170 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

In paving four streets with Medina sandstone blocks, at 
Rochester, N. Y., the average amount of joint filler was 
1.4 gallons of paving pitch per sq. yd. 

The foregoing cost data apply to work done over large 
areas with fairly well organized gangs; but on small areas, 
such as paving gutters 3 ft. wide, I have had pavers aver- 
age only 31/^ sq. yds. per hour per paver, each paver se- 
curing his own blocks from piles along the curb. 

Cost of Grranite Block Pavement on Concrete. — Mr. 

G. W. Tillson, in ^'Street Pavements and Paving Materials," 
p. 204, gives the following data on the cost of granite block 
pavement in New York City in 1899. The day was 10 hrs. 
long: 

Concrete gang: Per day. 

1 foreman $3.00 

8 mixers on two boards, at $1.25 10.00 

4 wheeling stone and sand, at $1.25 5.00 

1 carrying cement and supplying water, at $1.25. . 1.25 
1 ramming, at $1.25 1.25 

Total, 240 sq. yds. (40 cu. yds.), at 8.6 cts $20.50 

The concrete is shoveled direct from the mixing boards to 

place. 

Cost 1:2:4 concrete: Per cu. yd. 

11/3 bbls. natural cement, at $0.90 $1.20 

0.95 cu. yd. stone, at $1.25 1.19 

0.37 cu. yd. sand, at $1.00 0.37 

Labor 0.51 

Total per cu. yd $3.27 

With concrete 6 ins. thick this is equivalent to 54.6 cts. 

per sq. yd. for the concrete foundation. 

The granite blocks were laid two days* later with the 

follQwing gang: 

Per sq. yd. 

Labor $0.14 

30 Belgian blocks, at $30 per M delivered 0.90 

0.2 cu. yd. sand, at $1 0.20 

Total ,,,,,,,,,,,,,, $1.24 



ROADS, PATEMENTi^, WALKS, 171 

A gang laying granite block pavement on sand was as 
follows: 

Per day. 

4 pavers, at $4,50 $18.00 

2 rammers, at $3.50 7.00 

3 chuckers, at $1.50 4.50 

3 laborers, at $1.25 3.75 

Total, 280 sq. yds., at 12 cts $33.25 

On another street where there were street-car tracks the 
labor cost was 10% more. 

Per sq. yd. 

Labor $0.12 

24 granite blocks, at $55 per M 1.32 

0.2 cii. yd. sand, at $1 0.20 

Total $1.64 

Per day. 
10 pavers, at $4.50 $45.00 

5 rammers, at $3.50 17.50 

6 chuckers, at $1.50 9.00 

20 laborers, at $1.25 25.00 

2 foremen, at $3.50 , 7.00 

Total, 650 sq. yds., at 16 cts $103.50 

Per sq. yd. 

Labor laying blocks $0.16 

221/^ granite hlocks, at $55 per M 1.24 

3% gals, paving pitch, at 7 cts 0.24 

1% cu. ft. gravel for joints, at $1.95 per cu. yd.. 0.10 

iVsi cu. ft. sand for cushion, at $1.00 per cu. yd.. 0.06 

1 sq. yd. concrete 0.55 

Total $2.35 

Cost of Laying Asphalt Pavements at "Winnipeg. — 

The following data are given by H. N. Ruttan, City Eingi- 
neer of Winnipeg, Manitoba, on the cost of laying asphalt 
with a municipally owned plant. In 1899, the city purchased 



172 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

a second-hand stationary plant for $12,322, and made tlie 
following additions: 

New 10-ton roller $3,500 

New sheds, etc 733 

Tools bought 1899 262 

Tools bought 1900 121 

Maintenance 1899 568 

Maintenance 1900 1,048 

$6,232 
Second-hand plant 12,322 

Total $18,554 

The maintenance items consisted largely in repairs to 
the second-hand plant necessary to put it in first-class con- 
dition. The plant includes 2 asphalt melting tanks, sand 
drum, cold and hot sand elevators, millstone for grinding 
limestone, storage tank for hot asphalt, storage bins for 
ground limestone and hot sand, mixeir of 7 cu. ft. capacity, 
60-HP. boiler, 30-HP. engine, air compressor and receiver, 
5-ton roller, 10-ton roller, and accessories. The force re- 
quired to operate the mixing plant was as follows: 

1 superintendent $8.00 

1 engineman 3.00 

2 firemen .......... 4.00 

2 asphalt melters 4.00 

1 asphalt dipper and mixer 2.00 

1 measurer of sand and limestone 2.00 

2 sand and limestone shovelers 2.00 

1 record keeper 4.00 

1 man for odd jobs 2.00 

Total labor for 9 hrs $31.00 

I have assumed the above rates of wages, but it is stated 
that the total cost of operating was $40 a day, which 
doubtless includes the cost of 1^^ or 2 tons of coal. It is 
stated that in 1900 the prices of materials and labor were 
as follows, on cars: 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS, 173 

Asphalt, per short ton $36.00 

Portland cement, per bbl 3.65 

Sand, per cu. yd 1.35 

Broken stone, per cu. yd. 1.10 

Common labor is said to have been 17% to 20 cts. per hr.; 
teams, 40 cts. per hr. 

Asphalt pavement, consisting of iMs-in. binder and 2-ln. 
wearing surface, laid on a 4l^-in. Portland cement con- 
crete foundation, cost $2.04 per sq, yd. for materials and 
labor. The concrete foundation cost $0.74 per sq. 
yd., leaving $1.30 per sq. yd. for the asphalt, 
provided the grading was not included in the $2.40 
— which is nowhere mentioned. It will be noticed that 
interest and depreciation are not included. The plant has 
a capacity of 1,000 sq. yds. of 2-in. wearing surface, or 
1,500 sq. yds. of 1%-in. binder, which is equivalent to say- 
ing that it has a capacity of about 60 cu. yds. of asphalt, 
measured in the street, per day of 9 hrs. In 1899 the city 
laid 45,800 sq. yds.; in 1900, it laid 22,000 sq. yds. If we 
assume 30,000 sq. yds. as a fair average for a term of 10 
years, the plant would pay for itself by charging 6 cts. 
per sq. yd. for plant, and it would be occupied about 60 
days of actual work per year. But we should not lose 
sight of the fact that the services of an expert to run the 
plant could not be secured on the basis of a* few dollars a 
day for only a small fraction of the year. Indeed the cost 
of an expert's annual salary alone might very easily run up 
the cost an amount equivalent to 10 cts. per sq. yd. 

Since the above was written I have secured the follow- 
ing additional data for the year 1903. The plant has been 
enlarged and its estimated value is now $21,082. The 
charges against this plant for the year 1903 were as fol- 
lows: 

Maintenance and repairs $2,297 

% cost of new tools 236 

4% interest on $21,082 843 

5% depreciation on $21,082 1,054 

Lost taxes 100 

Total $4,530 



174 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

In 1903 there were laid 65,381 sq. yds., so that the charge 
for plant was 6.93 cts. per sq. yd. The soil is clay and 
upon it is spread 3 ins. of sand and gravel before laying the 
concrete base. The cost of the pravement in 1903, includ- 
ing grading, was as follows: 

Per sq. yd. 

Grading, including cross-drains $0.15 

Sand, 3-in. foundation 0.15 

Concrete, 4% ins. thick 0.65 

Binder coat 0.28 

Surface coat 0.60 

Plant charges 0.07 

Total $1.90 

The prices paid for materials, f. o. b. Winnipeg, were 
as follows: 

Portland cement, per bbl $2.96 

, Broken stone, per cu. yd 1.30 

Sand and gravel, per cu. yd 1.00 

• Crushed granite, per cu. yd 5.00 

Asphalt, per ton 26.37 

Maltha, per imp. gal 0.12 

Common labor, per 9-hr. day $1.80 to 2.25 

Skilled labor, per 9-hr day 2.70 

Foremen $3.00 to 4.00 

Superintending chemist (for 5 or 6 mos.) 8.00 

Mr. Ruttan informs me that a surface coat (Bermudez) 
costs as follows: 

900 lbs. sand (0.4 cu. yd.) $0.54 

140 lbs dust 0.18 

Fuel, cordwood 0.12 

Labor 0.32 

23 lbs. oil at iVz cts 0.341/2 

1001^ lbs. Bermudez (gross), at $1.932 1.94 

Total for 1,157 lbs $3,441/2 

Cost per sq. yd. (175 lbs. per' sq. yd.) $0.52 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS, 175 

Cost, of Laying Asphalt Pavement. — The following 
shows the labor cost of laying asphalt on a concrete base 
at Rochester, N. Y. A binder coat, %-in. thick, was first 
laid; then a wearing, or surface coat ly2 ins. thick; mak- 
ing a total of 2 ins. The gang consisted of 16 men, organ- 
ized as follows: 

Binder gang. Surfacing gang. 

4 barrow loaders. 4 shovelers. 

4 barrow wheelers. 5 rakers. 

2 rakers. 2 tampers. [ 

2 tampers. 2 smoothers. 

1 wagon unloader. 1 cement spreader. 

1 tar melter. 1 iron heater. 

1 iron heater. 1 foreman. 

1 foreman. ~~ 
16 men. 

16 men. 

The binder gang averaged 2,250 sq. yds. in 10 hrs. of 
J/^-in. binder coat laid, although they frequently laid 390 
sq. yds. in an hour. In surfacing work, the gang averaged 
1,800 sq. yds. of 1%-in. surfacing coat in 10 hrs., although 
they frequently laid 260 sq. yds. in an hour. There were 
two asphalt steam rollers constantly at work, with this 
gang of 16 men. In laying several thousand yards of this 
2-in. asphalt pavement, I found the average labor cost to 
be as follows: 

15 laborers at $1.50 $22.50 

1 foreman at $4.00 4.00 

2 roller engineers at $3.00 6.00 

Fuel for rollers 2.50 

Total for 1,000 sq. yds. of 2-in. asphalt $35.00 

This is equivalent to 3i^ -cts. per sq. yd. for laying and 
rolling. 

The haul from the mixer to the street was 3 miles, and 
each team made 4 trips daily, averaging 1^^ cu. yds. of 
loose material per load. It took 2% cu. yds. of loose mate- 
rial in the wagons to make 2 cu. yds. packed by the roller. 
The wagons were slat-bottom wagons, and it took about 



176 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

8 mins. to dump a wagon, but fully as much more time 
was lost waiting for other wagons, turning around, etc., 
which time was made up by trotting back. There were 17 
teams kept busy, at $3 per day each, making the cost 5 
cts. per sq. yd. for hauling the asphalt 3 miles. 

Cost of Cement Walks. — The cost of cement walks is 
commonly estimated in cents per square foot, including 
the necessary excavation and the cinder or gravel founda- 
tion. The excavation usually costs about 13 cts. per cu. 
yd., and if the earth is loaded into wagons the loading 
costs another 10 cts. per cu. yd., wages being 15 cts. per 
hr. The cost of carting depends upon the length of haul, 
and may be estimated from data given on page 83. If 
the total cost of excavation is 27 cts. per cu. yd., and if 
the excavation is 12 ins. deep, we have a cost of 1 ct. per 
sq. ft. for excavation alone. Usually the excavation is not 
so deep, and often the earth from the excavation can be 
sold for filling lots. 

In estimating the quantity of cement required for walks, 
it is well to remember that 100 sq. ft. of walk 1 in. tkick 
require practically 0.3 cu. yd. concrete. The base of the 
walk is often made 3 ins. thick, of 1 : 3 : 6 concrete, and the 
top wearing coat is often made 1 in. thick of 1 : IV2 mor- 
tar. The cement is Invariably Portland. 

Such a walk is frequently laid on a foundation of gravel 
or cinders 4 ins. thick. 

If the concrete base is 3 ins. thick, we have 0.3 x 3, or 
0.9 cu. yd. per 100 sq. ft. of walk. And by using the tables 
on page 255, we can estimate the quantity of cement re- 
quired for any given mixture. In cement walk work the 
cement is commonly measured loose, so that a barrel can 
be assumed to hold 4.5 cu. ft. of cement. If the barrel is 
assumed to hold 4.5 cu. ft, it will take less than 1 bbl. of 
cement to make 1 cu. yd. of 1 : 3 : 6 concrete; hence it 
will not require more than 0.9 bbl. cement, 0.9 cu. yd. 
stone, and 0.45 cu. yd. sand per 100 sq. ft. of 3-in. concrete 
base. The 1-in. wearing coat made of 1 : li/^ mortar re- 
quires about 3 bbls. of cement per cu. yd., if the barrel is 
assumed to hold 4.5 cu. ft. (see page 253); and since it 
takes 0.3 cu. yd. per lOt) sq. ft., 1 in. thick, we have 0.8 x 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 177 

8, or 0.9 bbl. cement per 100 sq. ft. for the top coat. This 
makes a total of 1.8 bbls. per 100 sq. ft., or 1 bbl. makes 55 
sq. ft. of 4-in. walk. 

As the average of a number of small joibs, my records 
show the following costs per sq. ft. of 4-in. walk such as 

just described: 

Ots. per sq. ft. 

Excavating 8 ins. deep 0.65 

Gravel for 4-in. foundation, at $1.00 per cu. yd 1.20 

0.018 bbl. cement, at $2.00 3.60 

0.009 cu. yd. broken stone, at $1.50 1.35 

0.006 cu. yd. sand, at $1.00 0.60 

Labor making walk 1.60 

Total 9.00 

This is 9 cts. per sq. ft. of finished walk. The gangs that 
built the walk were usually 2 masons at $2.50 each per 
10-hr. day with 2 laborers at $1.50 each. Such a gang aver- 
aged 500 sq. ft. of walk per day. 

Cost of Cement Walks in Iowa. — Mr. L. L. Bingham 
sent out letters to a large number of sidewalk contractors 
in Iowa asking for data of cost. The following was the 
average cost per square foot as given in the replies: 

Cts. per sq. ft. 

Cement, at $2 per bbl 3.6 

Sand and gravel 1.5 

Labor, at $2.30 per day (average) 2.2 

Incidentals, estimated 0.7 

Total per sq. ft 8.0 

This applies to a walk 4 ins. thick, and includes grad- 
ing in some cases, while in other cases it does not. Mr. 
Bingham writes me that in this respect the replies were 
unsatisfactory. He also says that the average wages paid 
were $2.30 per man per day. It will be noted that a barrel 
of cement makes 55^/^ sq. ft. of walk, or it takes 1.8 bbls. 
per 100 sq. ft. 

The average contract price for a 4-in. walk was 11% 
cts. per sq. ft. 



178 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of a Cement Walk, San Francisco. — Mr. George 
P. Wetmore, of the contracting firm of Gushing & Wet- 
more, San Francisco, gives the following: 

The foundations of cement walks in the residence dis- 
trict of San Francisco are 2y2 ins. thick, made of 1 : 2 : 6 
.concrete, the stone not exceeding 1 in. in size. The wearing 
coat is %-in. thick, made of 1 part cement to 1 part screened 
beach gravel. The cement is ^measured loose, 4.7 cu. ft. 
per bbl. The foundation is usuallj'' laid in sections 10 ft. 
long; the width of sidewalks is usually 15 ft. The top coat 
is placed immediately, leveled with a straight edge and 
gone over with trowels till fairly smooth. After the in- 
itial set and first troweling, it is left until quite stiff, when 
it is troweled again and polished — a process called ''hard 
finishing." The hard finish makes the surface less slippery. 
The surface is then covered with sand, and watered each 
day for 8 or 10 days. The contract price is 9 to 10 cts. 
per sq. ft. for a 3-in. walk; 12 to 14 cts. for a 4-in. walk 
having a wearing coat % to 1-in. thick. A gang of 3 or 
4 men averages 150 to 175 sq. ft. per man per day of 9 
hrs. Prices and wages are as follows: 

^ Cement, per bbl $2.50 

Crushed rock, per cu. yd 1.75 

Gravel and sand for foundation, per cu. yd 1.40 

Gravel for top finish, per cu. yd 1.75 

Finisher wages, best, per hr 0.40 

Finisher helper, best, per hr 0.25 

Laborer, best, per hr 0.20 

Cost of a Cement "Walk, Forbes Hill Reservoir. — ^Mr. 
O. M. Saville, M. Am. Soc. C. E.., gives the following data 
relating to 6,250 sq. ft. of cement walk built by contract: 

Per Per 

Stone foundation. cu. yd. sq. ft. 

Broken stone for 12-in. foundation. $0.40 $0,015 

Labor placing same, 15 cts. per hr 1.50 0.056 

Total $1.90 $0,071 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 179 

Concrete base (4i/^ ins. thick). 

1.22 bbls. cement per cu. yd., at $1.53 $1.87 $0,026 

0.50 cu. yd.. sand per cu. yd., at $1.02 0.51 0.007 

0.84 cu. yd.; stone per cu. yd., at $1.57 1.32 0.019 

Labor (6 laborers and 1 team) 3.48 0.050 

Total (for 90 cu. yds.) $7.18 $0,102 

Top finish (1 in. thick). 

4 bbls. per cu. yd., at $1.53 $6.12 $0,019 

0.8 cu. yd. sand, at $1.00 0.80 0.002 

Lampblack 0.29 0.001 

Labor (2 walk masons and 1 helper) 6.36 0.016 

Total $13.57 $0,038 

This walk was 6 ft. wide laid on a 12-in. foundation of 
broken stone. On top of this foundation was the concrete 
base, 5 ins. thick in the middle and 4 ins. thick at the sides. 
This base was surfaced with a top granolithic finish about 
1 in. thick. 

It is difficult to account for the hi^h labor cost ($1.50) of 
placing the 12-in. stone foundation except on the supposi- 
tion that the stones were broken by hand. 

The work on the concrete base was unusually expensive, 
for no apparen't reason except inefficiency of the men. 

The two miasons received $2.25 each per day, and their 
helper $1.50, and they averaged 360 sq. ft. per day, or 
60 lin. ft. of walk 6 ft. wide, which is equivalent to 1% 
cts. per sq. ft. 

Atlas cement was used, and in measuring was assumed 
to be 3.7 cu. ft. per bbl. 

Cost of Concrete Curb and Gutter. — The following 
costs were recorded by Mr. Charles Apple, and relate to 
work done at Champaign, 111., in 1903. The work was done 
by contract, at 45 cts. per lin. ft. of the curb and gutter 
shown in Fig. 7a. 

The concrete curb and gutter was built in a trench as 
shown in the cut. The earth was removed from this 
trench with pick and shovel at a rate of 1 cu. yd. per man 
per hour. The concrete work was built in alternate sec- 



180 



BANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



tions, 7 ft. in leng-th. A continuous line of planks was set 
on edge to form the front and back of the concrete curb 




W^^^^^^^^^^^^^f 



FIG. 7iA. 

and gutter; and wood partitions staked into place, were 
used. The cost of 'the work was as follows: 
Cost of Concrete Curb and Gutter. 



Item. 
Opening trench, 18 x 30-ln 


No. of Lin. ft. 

men. per day. 

2 144 

2 850 

1 
1 
1 

3 400 

1 
3 
4 
2 
1 

1 
1 
1 

. 14 350 


Total 

wages. 

$3.60 

8.50 

8.00 
2.00 
1.76 

$6.76 

$1.75 
5.25 
7.00 
3.50 
1.75 

4.00 

3.00 

.50 


Cost per 

100 ft. 

$2.43 

1.00 


Placing and tamping cinders 

Setting forms : 
Boss setter 


Assistant setter 


.... 


Laborer 


.... 


Total setting forms 


$1.69 


Mixing and placing concrete : 
Clamp man 




Wbeelers 




Mixing concrete 




Mixing finishing coat 




Tampers 

Finishing : 

Forem an an d boss finisher 

Assistant finisher 


.... 


Water boy 


.... 


Total making concrete 

Total for labor per 100 ft 


$26.75 


$7.64 
$12.76 

$15.42 


Materials for 100 lin. ft. : 
Portland cement 




Quantity. 
SH bbls. 
7.5 yds. 
2.5 - 
2.5 «• 
1.0 


Pric«. 

$1.85 

.50 

1.00 

1.40 

1.00 


Cinders 




8.75 


Gravel 




3.60 


Broken stone 




8.50 


Sand 




1.00 








Total for material per 100 ft 


$26.17 


Total for material and labor 


per 100 ft 




f38.98 



ROADS, PAVEMENTS, WALKS. 181 

This is the total cost, exclusive of lumber, tools, inter- 
est, profits, etc., and it is practically 40 cts. per lin. ft 

In 100 lin. ft. of curb and gutter there were 4.6 cu. yds. 
of concrete and mortar facing, 4 cu. yds. of which were 
concrete; hence the 9 men in the concrete gang laid 14 
cu., yds. of concrete per day, whereas the 4 men mixing 
and placing the mortar finishing laid only 2i/^ cu. yds. of 
mortar per day, assuming that the mortar finishing aver- 
aged just 1 in. thick. Since these 4 men (2 mixers and 2 
finishers) received $10.50 a day, it cost more than $4 per 
cu. yd. to mix and place the 1:2 mortar, as compared with 
$1.41 per cu. yd. for mixing and placing the concrete. The 
concrete was built in alternate sections 7 ft. long. The 
3 men placing forms averaged 400 lin. ft. a day, so that 
the cost of placing the forms was $1 per cu. yd. of concrete. 
The 2 men placing and tamping cinders averaged 6 cu. yds. 
of cinders per day, or 8 cu. yds. per man. This curb and 
gutter was -built by contract at 45 cts. per lin. ft. 

For several jobs, in which a curb and gutter essentially 
the same as shown in Fig. 7A was built, my records show 
a general correspondence with the above given data of 
Mr. Apple. Our work was done with smaller gangs, 1 
mason and 2 laborers being the ordinary gang. Such a 
gang would lay 80 to 100 lin. ft. of curb and gutter per 
10-hr. day, at the following cost: 

1 mason at f 2.50 $2.50 

2 laborers at $1.50 3. 00 

Total $5.50 

This made a cost of 5% to 7 cts. per lin. ft. for labor, 
and it did not include the cost of digging a trench to re- 
ceive the curb and gutter. 

Cost of Laying Stone Curbs. — After the trench has been 
dug and foundation prepared, a mason and a helper will 
lay 225 lin. ft. of stone curb in 10 hrs. If the mason re- 
ceives 35 cts. per hr., and his helper receives 20 cts. per 
hr., the placing of the curb costs 2i^ cts. per lin. ft. This 
cost is based upon the work of laying several thousand 
feet of dressed Medina sandstone curb, 24 ins. deep, and 
does not include any dressing of the stone. The men were 
liot very efficient. 



SE'CTION V. 
COST OF STONE MASONRY. 

Definitions. — Abutment , the foundation or substructure 
of a bridge. Abutments are built on the -banks of a stream; 
piers are built in the stream itself. 

Apron, a covering over the earth or rock below the spill- 
way of a dam. 

Arch culvert, a culvert with an arched roof. 

Ashlar, first-class squared stone masonry dressed so that 
its joints do not much exceed i^-in. in thickness. 

Back, the rear face of a wall. 

Backing, the rough backing masonry of a wall faced with 
a higher class of masonry. The earth deposited back of a 
wall or arch is sometimes miscalled backing instead of 
back-filling or lining. 

Barrel, the under surface of an arch. See Soffit. 

Bat, a part of a brick or stone. 

Batter, the backward slope of the face of a wall. A 1-in. 
batter means that the face of the wall departs from a plumb 
line at the rate of 1 in. in every foot of rise. 

Beds, or bed joints, -the horizontar joints of masonry. See 
also "Natural bed." 

Belt course, a projecting course of masonry immediately 
under the coping; a belt course is often called a corbel 
course. Its object is to give a better appearance to a wall. 

Bench wall, the wall or abutment supporting an arch. 

Blind header, a header that extends only a short distance 
back into a wall instead of extending to the full depth 
specified; blind headers are also called "bob-^tails." 

Bond, the arrangement of stones so as to overlap or 
"break joints." • 

Box culvert, a culvert having a waterway of rectangular 
cross-section. 



COST OF STONE MASONRY. 183 

Breast wall, a wall built against the face of an excava- 
tion to prevent its caving down; also called a face wall. 

Bridge seat, see Pedestal. 

Bulkhead, a head wall at the end of a culvert, and per- 
pendicular to the axis oif the culvert; see head wall. 

Bush hammer, to dress stone with a hammer having a 
number of pyramidal cutting teeth on its striking face. 

Buttress, a vertical piece of masonry projecting from the 
face of a retaining wall to strengthen it. 

Centers, the temporary structure that supports an arch 
during its construction. 

Chisel draft, a narrow plane surface cut with a pitching 
chisel along the outer edges of the face of an ashlar stone. 

Classes, different kinds of masonry specilBed, usually, first, 
second and third class; the first class being the most ex- 
pensive. What is ''first class" according to one engineer 
may be "second class" according to another. 

Closer, a narrow stone used to finish a course of masonry. 

Coping, the top course of stones on a wall, usually made 
of large flat stones which are laid so as to project a few 
inches over the face of the wall. A projecting coping re- 
lieves the wall of a "bobtailed" appearance. 

Course, a horizontal layer or tier of stones. "Coursed 
masonry" is built up in courses. 

Cover-stones, the flat stones forming the roof of a box 
culvert. 

Cramp, a bar of metal having the -two ends bent at right 
angles to the bar for insertion into holes drilled in adjoin- 
ing blocks of stone. 

Crandall, a stone dressing hammer, consisting of a steel 
bar with a slot in one end holding 10 double-headed points 
of steel (%-in. square x 9 ins. long). 

Crown, the top of an arch at its highest point. 

Cull, a rejected stone ot brick. 

Culvert, a waterway under a road, canal or railroad em- 
bankment. 

Cut-stone, a stone that is carefully "dressed" or shaped 
with tools. 

Cut-ivater, the upper wedge-shaped end of a bridge pier. 

Cyclopean masonry, masonry made o-f huge stones. 

Damp-course, a waterproofed course or bed joint in a wall, 
usually just above the surface of the ground; its purpose 



184 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

being to prevent the rise of water in the pores of the stone 
and mortar due to capillary action. 

Depth J the width of a stone measured perpendicularly to 
the face of the wall; the distance that a face stone extends 
into the wall. 

Dimension stone, stone dressed to exactly specified dimen- 
sions. 

Dirt wall, see "mud wall." 

Dog holes, shallow holes drilled in a stone to afford a bite 
for the **dogs," or hooks, used in lifting the stone with a 
derrick. 

Dowel, a short steel pin inserted part way into the ad- 
joining faces of two blocks of stone. 

Draft line, see *'chisel draft." 

Dress, to cut or shape a stone with tools. 

Drove, dressed on the face so as to have a series of small 
parallel ridges and valleys. 

Dry wall, a stone wall built without mortar. 

Efflorescence, a white crust that often forms on the face 
of masonry, due to the leaching of soluble salts out of the 
mortar; often called "whitewash." 

Extrados, the curve that bounds the outer extremities 
of the joints between the arch stones, or voussoirs. 

Face, the front surface of a wall. 

Face stones, the stones forming the front of a wall. 

Face-wall, see "breast wall." 

Footing courses, the bottom or foundation courses, which 
usually project beyond the "neat work" of an abutment. 

Frost hatter, a batter occasionally given to the rear of 
a wall near its top to prevent the dislocation of the top 
course of stones upon the formation of frost in the ground. 

Full-centered, an arch that is a full semi-circle, or half 
circle. 

Oroin, the curved intersection of two arches meeting at 
an angle. 

Orout, a thin watery mortar which is poured into the 
joints after the stones have been laid. 

Haunch, the part of an arch between the crown and the 
skewback. 

Header, a stone laid with its longest dimension perpen- 
dicular to the face of the wall. 

Bead wall, an end wall, or bulkhead, of a culvert. 



COi^T OF STONE MASONRY. 185 

Hollow quoin, the vertical semi-circirlar groove in the 
masonry into which fits the **quoin post," or hinge post, of 
a canal lock gate. 

Inti^ados, the inner curve of an arch. 

Joint, the mortar filling between adjacent stones; some- 
times the word joint is used to denote the vertical joints 
only, in distinction from the "beds" or bed joints. 

Keystone, the center stone at the crown of an arch. 

Lagging^ the sheeting plank placed upon the ribs of arch 
centers. 

Length, the longest dimension of a stone. 

Lewis hole, a wedge-shaped hole in a block of stone, made 
for the purpose of lifting the block by the aid of a lewis. 

Lining, the gravel or broken stone filling back of a slope 
wall or retaining wall, for the purpose of drainage and to 
protect the earth from wash. 

Mortar, a mixture of sand with cement (or lime) and 
water. A 1 : 2 (one to two) mortar contains 1 part cement 
and 2 parts sand. 

Mud-wall, a small parapet or retaining wall built on top 
of a bridge abutment to prevent the earth back-fill from 
sliding or washing down upon the coping. 

Natural bed, a laminated or stratified stone is laid in its 
"natural bed," or "quarry bed," when its laminations are 
horizontal or perpendicular to the load that they carry. 
Granite has no "natural bed." 

Neat mortar, mortar made without sand. 

Neat work, that part of an abutment above the footing 
courses, which is generally equivalent to saying, that part 
above the surface of the ground or water. 

Nigged, hewed with a pick. 

Niggerheads, rounded cobble stones. 

Parapet, the "mud-wall" of a bridge abutment; the "bulk 
head" of a culvert; the spandrel wall at each end of an 
arch bridge or culvert, but more properly the extension of 
the spandrel wall above the crown of the arch; a low 
guard wall rising above the surface of a roadway or walk 
to prevent pedestrians or vehicles from leaving the road- 
way or walk. 

Patent hammer, a double-faced hammer so formed as to 
hold at each face a set of wide thin chisels for giving a 
finish to a stone surface. 



186 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Pedestals, or i)ede^tal blocks, are stone blocks on top of 
an abutment coping; the pedestal blocks receive the weight 
of the bridge, and are often oalled "bridge seats;" the term 
pedestal is also applied to a small masonry pier upon which 
the post or sill of a trestle rests. 

Perch, 161/^ en. ft. in most parts of the U. S.; in some 
places 22 cu. -ft.; and rarely 24%, which was the old-fash- 
ioned perch. 

Pier, a. masonry structure built in a river to support a 
bridge: a column of masonry supporting two consecutive 
arches. See abutment. 

Pilaster, a square pillar projecting from the face of a 
wall to the extent of one-quarter to one-third its breadth. 

Pitch-line, a well defined, straight line cut along the edge 
of a quarry-faced stone, but not as wide as a chisel draft. 

Pitched- face, a face roughly dressed with a pitching chisel. 

Plug and feathered, split with plug and feathers; the 
plug being a small wedge of steel driven between two 
pieces of half-round steel, called feathers, which bear 
against the sides of the drill hole. 

Pointing, a superior class of mortar used to fill the joints 
in the face of a masonry wall for a depth of 1 to 3 ins. 

Quarry faced, a rough face of stone, only the larger pro- 
jections having been knocked off with a hammer. 

Quoin, see "hollow quoin." 

Raising stone, see pedestal. 

Ramp icall, the wing of an abutment, often called a ramp. 

Random, not coursed. 

Ranged, laid in a course of the same thickness for its^ 
full length; broken ranged masonry is laid in courses not 
of uniform thickness throughout each course. 

Retaining wall, a wall that receives the horizontal thrust 
of earth back of it; on canal work such walls are called 
"vertical wails" to distinguish them from slope walls. 

Ring-stones, the voussoirs that form the end faees of an 
arch, as distinguished from the "sheeting stones" that form 
the body of the arch. 

Rip-rap, large stones thrown in at random to protect 
earth from scour by currents or waves; occasionally called 
"random stones." 

Rise, the thickness (or vertical height) of a stone, meas- 
ured from its lower bed to its upper bed. Do not confuse 



COST OF STONE MASONRY, 187 

the "rise'* with the ''depth." The rise of an arch is the 
vertical distance from the spring line to the under face of 
the keystone. 

Rock-faced, see "quarry-faced." 

Rock-fill dam, a dam made of dry masonry; a rubble dam 
in which no mortar is used. 

RuhMe, masonry made oif stones that have not been 
dressed, or if dressed at all, have been only roughly shaped 
with a hammer, or "scabbled." 

ScahMed, hammer dressed. 

Sheeting, the stones forming an arch. See ring-stones. 

Skew arch, an arch the plane of whose ring-stone faces 
forms an angle of less than 90° with the axis of the barrel. 
If the sheeting stones are all cut skewed, the arch Is a 
''true skew;" but if only the faces of the ring-stones are 
cut on a skew, while all the other sheeting stones are cut 
with end joints perpendicular to the bed joints, the arch 
is called a "false skew." 

Skewhacks, the course of stones against which the 
springer stones of an arch abut. 

Slope wall, a pavement of scabbled stones laid upon an 
earth slope to protect it from wash. If the stones are not 
scabbled, the terms rip-rap, or hand laid rip-rap, are more 
appropriate. 

^o/?ii, the under surface of an arch. 

^pat?, the shortest distance between the spring lines; of 
an arch. 

Spandrel, the triangular area bounded by the extrados of 
an arch, a horizontal line tangent to the extrados at the 
^ crown and a vertical line through the springing. A 
spandrel wall is a wall built on the extrados and filling 
the spandrel area; it is often miscalled a parapet wall. 
Spandrel filling is the earth filling between the spandrel 
walls. 

Spall, a fragment of stone, or stone chip. 

Springers, the lowest course of arch stones, the course 
resting on the skewbacks. 

Springing, or spring line, the inner edge of the skew- 
backs, or the lower edge of the springers. 

Starlings, the two ends of a pier. 

Stretcher, a stone laid so that its longest face forms part 
of the face of a wall.- 



188 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Voussoir, an arch stone. 

Wingy a spur wall at the end of a ibridge abutment, also 
called a ramp. 

Note: Other definitions will be found at the beginning 
of the section on concrete. 

Percentage of Mortar in Stone Masonry. — Published 
tables giving the percentages of mortar in different kinds 
of masonry have been very misleading, not only because 
they have been based upon meagre data, but because the 
factors that cause variations in mortar percentages have 
not been discussed. 

There are two ways of estimating the amount of cement 
required per cubic yard of masonry: (1) By estimating 
the percentage of mortar in the cubic yard of masonry, and 
then using a mortar table like that on page 253. (2) By 
tabulating the different kinds of masonry and giving the 
fractions of a barrel of cement required for a cubic yard 
of each kind of masonry, when the mortar is a 1 :2 mix- 
ture, also when it is a 1 :3 mixture^ — these two being the 
common mixtures. Each method possesses its advantages, 
but the first is the safest because proper allowance can 
be made for variations in the size of cement barrel. 

A great many masonry walls consist of a "facing," or 
ashlar, of squared stone cut to lay close joints, and a "back- 
ing" of more or less irregular rubble stones. Obviously, if 
the wall is a thin one, the percentage of backing is much 
smaller than if the wall is thick. So that it would be de- 
sirable always to keep separate records of the amount of 
mortar used for the backing and for the ashlar. In prac- 
tice, however, it is usually impracticable to keep separate 
records. The final record usually gives only the amount 
of cement per cubic yard of the whole wall. However, in 
making close estimates of probable cost it is well to keep 
the two classes of masonry distinct. 

Knowing the average size of cut stone blocks and the 
thickness of joints specified, we can estimate the per cent, 
of mortar for the face stone with considerable accuracy. 
Suppose the cut stone is to be in courses 12 ins. high, and 
dressed to lay %-in. joints for 12 ins. back of the face. 
We can assume that the length of each face s'tone will not 
be far from 1^^ times its thickness, or 18 ins. in this case. 
Hence each cut stone will contain 1 x 1 x 1%, or V/z cu. ft. 



I 



COST OF BT0:SIE MA^Ol^RY. 18D 

Each stone must have one end and one bed mortared to a 
thickness of %-in., hence we have: 1 x 1 x (i/^ -f- 12), or 
0.04 cu. ft. of mortar for the end; and 1 x li/^ x (i/^ -r- 12), 
or 0.06 cu. ft. of mortar for the bed; making a total of 
0.1 cu. ft. of mortar for the end and bed of each stone. 
But as each stone contains 1.5 cu. ft., we see that 0.1 -r- 1.5 
gives us 7% (nearly) of mortar for the cut stone. 

Obviously the larger the individual stones the less is the 
percentage of mortar. Stones 18 ins. high, 30 ins. long, and 
dressed to lay i/^-in. joints for 18 ins. back of the face, 
require 4l^% of mortar. 

The mortar required for the back of the stone is appar- 
ently omitted in applying the above method, but it is not 
omitted in the final account, since it is included in the 
rubble backing, to a consideration of which we now pass. 

Rubble is a term having wide variations in meaning, but 
in general it may be said to apply to masonry built of 
undressed stones just as they come from the quarry. Now, 
if the quarry is limestone or sandstone yielding flat-bedded 
stones, the rubble may be laid with bed joints as close as 
the joints of well dressed granite ashlar. On the other 
hand, if the quarry is granite or rock that when blasted 
yields chunks of irregular shape, the rubble becomes a 
sort of giant concrete and requires a large percentage of 
mortar to fill its voids. 

In any kind of rubble the percentage of mortar can be 
considerably reduced by packing spalls into the vertical 
joints between adjacent stones. As Portland cement mor- 
tar seldom costs less than $5 per cu. yd., and as spalls 
usually cost but a few cents per cu. yd., no pains should 
be spared to use as many spalls as the joints will hold. 

If no spalls are used, and if the rubble is made of irregu- 
lar stones, about 35% of the rubble 'masonry is mortar. If 
the rubble is made of fiat-bedded sandstone or limestone, 
it may contain as low as 15% mortar, but more often will 
average 20 to 25%. 

The following are records of the actual amounts of mor- 
tar n^ed in different masonry structures: 

(1) The Medina sandstone retaining walls on the Erie 
Canal averaged about 10 ft. high and were faced with 
hammer dressed stones and backed with flat-bedded rub- 
ble. About 22% of the wall was mortar. The mortar was 



190 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

1 : 2, and it required about 0.63 bbl. cement per cu. yd. of 
wall. A barrel was counted as holding 3.8 cu. ft. 

(2) Mr. A. J. Wiley states that in the Crow Creek Dam, 
near Cheyenne, Wye, there are 14,420 cu. yds. of rubble 
masonry, of which 34%% was mortar. About 80% of this 
mortar was 1 Portland cement to 4 sand; the rest was 1 
to 3. Each barrel was counted as 4 cu. ft., and 8,844 bbls. 
were used, or 0.62 bbl. per cu. yd. 

(3) The Cheesman Dam is of rubble, with one ashlar 
face, and is said to contain 28% mortar. 

(4) The Cheat River Bridge, on the B. & O. R. R., near 
Uniontown, Pa., has five piers and two abutments. The 
masonry is a first-class sandstone facing with a rubble 
backing of heavy stones, and the mortar was 1 of Louis- 
ville (natural) cement to 2 of sand. There were 3,710 cu. 
yds. of masonry, which required 1,500 bbls. of cement 
(shipped in bags), or 0.4 bbl. per cu. yd. 

(5) The masonry locks on the Great Kanawaha River, 
W. Va., were built of sandstone obtained at Lottes, W. Va. 
Face stones were cut to lay i/^-in. bed-joints and 1-in. 
vertical joints. Backing bed-joints were 1-in. The mor- 
tar was 1 part Rosendale cement (Hoffman brand), to 2 
parts sand. It required 0.36 bbl. per cu. yd. of masonry. 

(6) A curved masonry dam, 82 ft. high, built at Rem- 
scheid, Germany, is made of slate having a specific gravity 
of 2.7. The masonry, laid in trass mortar, weighs 4,015 
lbs. per cu. yd. Owing to the irregular form of the stones 
the mortar was 38% of the masonry. 

(7) The Holyoke Dam, 30 ft. high, is of rubble masonry 
with a cut granite face. The mortar was 1 Portland ce- 
ment to 2 sand, and it is stated that 0.87 bbl. of cement 
was required per cubic yard of rubble masonry. 

(8) Masonry in bridge piers, at Van Buren, Arkansas 
River, was for the most part of white limestone.- In 10 
piers there were 4,500 cu. yds. of masonry, which averaged 
0.57 bbl. natural cement per cu. yd. The beds and joints 
were 1 : 2 mortar, and a 1 : 1 grout was also used. 

(9) The limestone masonry for the Sault Ste. Marie 
locks (U. S. Government) amounted to 80,876 cu. yds., of 
which 23% was cut stone, 60% backing and 17% mortar. 
The cut stone blocks average 1.3 cu. yds. each, and were 
dressed to lay %-in. vertical joints for 18 ins. 



I 



CO^T OF STONE MASONRY. 191 

back of the face, and the bed joints were dressed 
to %-in. the full depth of the stone. In cutting 
the stone there was a wastage of 26%% of stone. The 
mortar was 1 : 1, and it required 0.29 bbl. of Portland ce- 
ment per cu. yd. of cut stone, 1.21 bbls. of natural cement 
per cu. yd. of backing, and 0.78 bbl. per cu. yd. ot the 
wall, including cut stone and backing. The backing stones 
each averaged 8 sq. ft. bed area, and no bed-joint was 
greater than 1 in.; and no vertical joint exceeded 4 ins., 
the average being 2 ins. This is remarkably close jointing 
for backing, and was unquestionably very expensive to se- 
cure. 

(10) The Lanchensee Dam, Germany, was made of gray- 
wacke rubble (stones % to % cu. yd. each); 35% of the 
dam was mortar. A force of 45 masons, 12 helpers, 27 
laborers and 4 foremen worked on the dam^ and 110 men 
at the quarry. They averaged 120 cu. yds. of masonry 
per day, the best day's work being 196 cu. yds. Eight loco- 
motive cranes running on trestles took the stone from the 
cars. The work was done by day labor for the German 
Government. 

(11) The Sweetwater Dam, Cal., was built of a granitic 
rubble that was quarried in irregular chunks. Mortar was 
1 : 3, proportioned by ibarrels, and it required 0.86 bbl. 
cement per cu. yd. of rubble masonry. 

Cost of Laying Masonry. — According to the author's 
experience on numerous small culvert bulkheads made 
of limestone or sandstone rubble, one mason with a helper 
to mix mortar and *'get stone" will lay 4 to 5 cu. yds. per 
8-hr. day. If mason's wages are $3 and helper's $1.50, this 
makes the cost axerage $1 per cu. yd. for laying. No 
derrick is used in such work the stone being one-man or 
two-man stone. Moreover, the stone requires little or no 
hammer-dressing on the part of the mason. 

In laying dry slope- walls (12 to 15 ins. thick) where 
stone of 'the same kind as the above is used, requiring 
very little hammer-dressing, a slope-v/all mason will lay 
5 to 7 cu. yds. per 10-hr. day, and I have had a man lay 
as high as 12 cu. yds. per day. One laborer to about 2 
or 3 slope-wall masons' is required, to furnish them with 
stone. A common laborer will lay about half as many 
yards of slope-wall stone as a skilled mason, so there is 



192 BANDBOOK OF CO^T DATA. 

little or no economy in using unskilled labor in laying the 
stone that must be laid to a line and occasionally dressed 
with a hammer. 

On a highway arch bridge of 30-ft. span, with a barrel 
20 ft. long, there were 50 cu. yds. of cut stone sheeting, 
30 cu. yds. of cut stone facing in the abutments and walls, 
and 190 cu. yds. of limestone rubble in the abutments and 
walls. The masonry was laid by a mason and 3 laborers, 
two of the laborers operating a hand power derrick and 
getting stone for the mason, while the third laborer made 
mortar and also assisted in getting stone. This gang 
worked without a foreman and were very slow, since they 
averaged only 3 cu. yds. per 8-hr. day. With mason's 
wages at $3 and laborers' at $1.50, the cost of laying the 
masonry was $2.50 per cu. yd. This included the erecting 
of two small derricks on opposite sides of the stream, but 
did not include erecting the centers for the arch. On 
page 206, the cost of laying the masonry of an arch bridge, 
similar to this one is given in detail; it being $1.35 per 
cu. yd., which shows how easy it is to reduce the cost of 
laying where the men are better organized. The common 
mistake made in organizing forces for laying stone with 
hand operated derricks is in having too many laborers to 
one mason, who is unable to keep them busy. 

If the mason must hammer-dress the stone to a great 
extent, as is often required by inspectors on granite rub- 
ble arches, the cost of laying (including this hammer 
dressing) may amount to $3.50 per cu. yd. It is difficult to 
be definite in the matter of costs of hammer-dressed gran- 
ite rubble, because inspectors vary so extremely in their 
interpretation of specifications. If no hammer-dressing is 
required (and none should he required for backing laid in 
cement mortar), the cost of laying granite rubble ijeed not 
exceed the cost of laying limestone or sandstone rubble, say 
$1 per cu. yd., wages being as above given. 

In tearing down and relaying an old masonry retaining 
wall (9 ft. high), the author employed 16 laborers and 
2 masons under a foreman. A stiff-leg derrick having 
30-ft. boom, and operated by hand, was used to handle the 
heaviest stones. Much of the backing was laid by hand 
by the laborers. This gang averaged 36 cu. yds. of masonry 
laid per 10-hr. day, at a cost of $30, exclusive of foreman's 



COST OF STONE MASONRY, XSjS 

wages, or less than 85 cts. per cu. yd. It cost 75 ets. per 
cu. yd. to itear down the wall before relaying it. 

For laying any considerable quantity of masonry, neTer 
use a hand-operated derrick. A horse-whim forms cheaper 
power than two men on a winch. But in either case the 
lost time of swinging, or slewing, the boom can not be 
avoided. The men (usually two) who swing the boom 
are called "tag men," because they pull the boom back 
and forth with "tag ropes." The wages of these men form 
a surprisingly large part of the cost of laying stone where 
a derrick is used which is not provided with a "bull- 
wheel" for swinging the boom. The engineman controls 
the swinging of the boom where a bull-wheel is used, and 
can make a swing of 90° in 15 to 20 seconds. 

To show how rapidly stone may be handled with a 60- 
ft. boom derrick, the following record will serve: 

Seconds. 

Hooking on to skip 35 

Swinging boom 90° 20 

Dumping skip 15 

Swinging back 90° 20 

Total 90 

This is equivalent to 400 skip loads in 10 hrs.; and, 
were the material supplied and removed fast enough, the 
derrick could readily maintain this output for 10 hrs., 
handling 1 cu. yd. of rubble in each skip load. Oibviously 
in masonry work, where a bull-wheel derrick is used, the 
limiting factor is the amount of stone the masons can 
handle per day. Much of the derrick time is spent in the 
puttering work necessary in carefully placing large 
stones in the wall. Now, where tag-rope men are used 
instead of a bull-wheel, practically all their time is wasted, 
as they spend so little of the day doing active work. 

Further data on the cost of laying masonry will he found 
on subsequent pages. 

Estimiating the Cost of Stone Dressing. — ^Stone may 
he divided into two classes: (1) Stone stratified in beds 
of a thickness not much exceeding 30 ins.; and (2) stone 
that is either unstratified, or occurs in beds of such thick- 



194 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

ness that the blocks must be split with plugs and feathers 
to secure sizes which can be handled with a derrick. 

Many sandstones and limestones occur in thin strata or 
layers, and, after the use of a little black power to * 'shake 
up" the ledge, it is possible to quarry blocks with wedges 
and bars. These blocks will often be as smooth as a floor 
on the bed- joints, but may be quite irregular on the ver- 
tical joints. However, either by hammering, or by plug 
and feathering, the vertical joints can be squared up at 
slight expense ready for further dressing if required by 
the specifications. On the other hand, all granites and 
many thick-bedded limestones and sandstones, break out 
in such irregular shapes that it often happens that every 
face must be plug and feathered before the block is rough- 
ly squared up ready to be dressed by the stone cutters. Ob- 
viously the dressing of the beds of such stones is far 
more expensive than the dressing of the beds of smoothly 
stratified stones. 

Besides differences in hardness, we see that the shape of 
the stones as they come from the quarry is a very im- 
portant factor in the cost of dfessing. 

Another factor of scarcely less importance is the size 
of the blocks of stone. It is generally possible to quarry 
granites in blocks of any desired size, the limit being fixed 
by the strength of the derricks and other machinery used. 
A very common size of granite blocks dressed ready to lay 
in the wall is 18 ins. rise x 40 ins. length x 24 to 30 ins. 
depth. And as every block of granite must be plug and 
feathered to size before dressing, it is just as cheap to 
make coursed ashlar as random range ashlar. On the other 
hand, stratified rocks like sandstone usually occur in lay- 
ers of different thickness, and it may be impossible to 
secure enough stone for courses of a specified rise without 
wasting a large part of the quarry product. An engineer 
should never specify any given "rise" for the courses (ex- 
cept in granite), until he has examined the quarries and 
is sure that they will yield the product specified. But en- 
gineers often fail to do this, and the contractor must be 
careful not to be equally foolish in failing to examine 'the 
stone available. 

Stone is often so seamy or so brittle that it can be 
quarried only in small chunks. Now it is obvious that 



COST OF STONJiJ MASONRY, 195 

the smaller the chunk the greater the area that must he 
dressed per cubic yard; but how greatly this factor affects 
the cost of dressing is seldom considered. To illustrate, 
let us assume that blocks for ashlar are each 12 ins. rise 
X 24 ins. long x 18 ins. deep. Each block then contains 
3 cu. ft., and has 6 sq. ft. of bed joints and 3 sq. ft. of end 
joints, or 9 sq. ft. of joints to be dressed. Let us now take 
an ashlar block 18 ins. rise x 36 ins. long x 24 ins. deep. 
This 'block contains 9 cu. ft., and has 12 sq. ft. of bed 
joints and 6 sq. ft. of end joints, or 18 sq. ft. of joints to 
be dressed. With the smaller iblo'ck we have 9x9, or 81 
sq. ft. of joints to be dressed for every cubic yard; where- 
as with the larger block we have 3 x 12, or 36 sq. ft. to be 
dressed for every cubic yard. In other words the icost of 
dressing ashlar of the 3-*cu. ft. blocks is more than twice 
as expensive per cubic yard as the cost of dressing the 
9-cu. ft. blocks. 

It is apparent, therefore, that all records of the cost of 
dressing stone should be expressed in terms of the square 
feet actu^illy dressed, and then the data can be applied to 
blocks of any given size to obtain the cost of dressing per 
cubic yard. This method of estimating costs will often lead 
a contractor to import his stone a long distance by rail 
rather than attempt to dress the small sized stones from 
local quarries. 

It is customary among contractors and stone cutters to 
speak of so and so many ''square feet" of stone dressed 
per day, meaning not the number of square feet of beds 
and joints dressed, but the square feet of "face." For ex- 
ample a stone is li^ ft. rise x 3 ft. long x 2 ft. deep. This 
stone when laid lengthwise in the face of a wall will show a 
face area of 4% sq. ft., and the sitone cutter is said to have 
dressed 4% sq ft. As a matter of fact he has dressed 12 
sq. ft. of hed joints, and 6 sq. ft. of end joints, beside 
plugging off or hammering the face of the stone, and cut- 
ting the drafts if specified. In my early work I was misled 
by this method of estimating stone dressing in terms of 
the square feet of face. It is a method that should be 
abandoned. 

Data of the actual cost of stone dressing will be given in 
subsequent pages. 

Data on Stone Sawing.— There is little on this subject 



196 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

in print, but in almost any large city stone saws may be 
seen at work, and a rough estimate can be made ot the 
cost of stone sawing. To tell how many inches deep a saw 
cuts in a day, examine a slab of stone newly cut in the 
yard. It will be noted that there are rust lines on the 
face of the slab. The distance between these lines indi- 
cates the depth cut in a day, for when the saws are idle at 
night, the rust forms. 

For cutting stone into thin slabs, it is common practice 
to run two "gangs" of saws, of 15 saws in a "gang" driven 
by a small engine. As nearly as I have been able to esti- 
mate by observation and inquiry, the daily cost of oper- 
ating a "two-gang" plant is as follows per 9-hr. day in 
New York City: 

1 gangman $4.00 

1 helper 3.00 

2 cu. yds. sand, at $3 6.00 

% ton coal, at $6 3.00 

Total per day $16.00 

Working in Tennessee marble each saw cuts about 6 
ins. deep per day, therefore, if the block is 6 ft. long, the 
30 saws cut 90 sq. ft. per day of ,9 hrs. The cost of saw- 
ing slabs, therefore, approximates 17 cts. per sq. ft. The 
saw cuts a kerf %-in. wide. 

I am told that with wages of polisher at $3.50, slabs can 
be polished by hand at 6 cts. per sq. ft.; but where the 
polishing is done by machine the cost is about 2% cts. per 
sq. ft. 

Wages of stone yard men in New York City are about a 
third higher than in most other American cities. 

Mr. R. J. Cooke states that the rates of sawing different 
kinds of stone are as follows: jy^^^^ ^^^ ^^ 

10 hrs., ins. 

Granite, Addison, Me. (shot) 10 

Granite, Chester, Mass. (sand) 12 

Granite, Red Beach, Me. (shot) 7i^ 

Bluestone, Hudson River (sand) 8 

Marble, Carara, Italy (sand) ... . ^ . . .... . . ... 15 

Marble, Tennessee (sand) .......... 9 

Marble, Tate, Ga. (sand) 6 



COST OF STONE MASONRJ. 197 

Depth cut in 
10 hrs., ins. 

Marble, Tate, Ga. (sand) 12 

Marble, Gouverneur, N. Y. (sand) 12 

Marble, W. Rutland, Vt. (sand) 20 

Marble, Proctor, Vt. (sand) 15 

Limestone, New Point, Ind. (sand) 10 

Limestone, New Point, Ind. (sand) 15 

Oolitic limestone, Bedford, Ind. (sand) 40 

Oolitic limestone, Bedford, Ind. (sand) 70 

Magnesian limestone, Lemont, 111. (sand) 36 

Sandstone, N. Amherst, O. (sand) 40 

Sandstone, Olarksville, O. (sand) 36 

Brownstone, Portland, Conn, (shot) 20 

Brownstone, Hummelston, Pa. (shot) 25 

The Young & Farrell Diamond Stone Sawing Co., of 
Chicago, classifies stone into soft, medium and hard; soft 
includes sandstones; medium includes limestones, and hard 
includes marbles and granites. They say (1890) the cost 
of sawing per sq. 'ft. is: Soft, 8 to 10 cts.; medium, 13 
to 17 cts.; hard, 25 to 30 cts.; all on the basis of 4-in. 
sawing or two cuts to the cubic foot. With wages of stone 
cutters at 50 cts. an hour, the cost of hand dressing the 
same classes of stones is given as follows per square foot: 
Soft, 25 to 30 cts.; medium, 40 to 45 cts.; and hard, 75 
to 80 cts.; all clear face work. 

€ost of Stone Dressing. — In addition to the data just 
given, The Syenite Granite Co., of Graniteville, Mo., say 
(1890) that the cost of hand dressing 36,000 cu. ft. of gran- 
ite to %-in. joints was 20 cts. per sq. ft., not including 
blacksmithing, handling, etc., which was 6 cts. more per 
sq. ft. This stone was granite cut to lay in 24 to 30-in. 
courses for the Merchants' Bridge, St. Louis, and it was 
delivered for $1.15 per cu. ft. 

The Kankakee Stone & Lime Co. say (1890) that, with 
wages at $3 a day, the cost of dressing limestone (bush- 
hammered or drove-work) is 25 cts. per sq. ft. 

Cost of Cutting Limestone and Sandstone. — In dress- 
ing Medina sandstone, a stone cutter will dress enough 
stone in 9 hrs. to lay 12 sq. ft. of face in a wall having 
courses that average 15 ins. rise, which is equivalent to 
•about 0.9 cu* yd. of face stone per day, or 30 sq. ft. of 



198 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

beds and joints cut to lay i/^-in. joints for at least 12 ins. 
back of the face. The face is rock-faced, and is plugged off 
by the stone cubter. 

In dressing limestone for arch sheeting, the author made 
the mistake of using a quarry whose product was all small " 
and gnarled stones. Each stone after dressing averaged 
only 11 ins. thick, 22 ins. long, and 18 ins. deep, or about 
0.1 cu. yd. per stone, so that to secure 1 cu. yd. of this 
cut-stone required the dressing of 80 sq. ft. of beds and 
joints! Each stone cutter averaged 36 sq. ft of beds and 
joints (dressed to lay i/^-in.) per 9-hr. day, or 1 cu. yd. in 
2^4 days. These cutters received 40 cts. per hr. 

iCost of Sandstone Bridge Piers. — The cost of cutting 
246 cu. yds. sandstone to %-in. joints for bridge piers was 
$2.65 per cu. yd.; the cutting of the stones for the nose 
of the pier cost $3 per cu. yd. The wages of cutters were 
38 cts. per hr. 

The cost of loading the stone, train service, sand, cement 
and laying the masonry was $3.60 per cu. yd. About % bbl. 
ot Portland cement costing $2.40 per bbl. was used per 
cu. yd. of masonry. The cost of quarrying the stone was 
$1.65 per cu. yd. The total cost of the pier masonry was $9 
per cu. yd. For the foregoing data I am indebted to Mr. 
C. R. Nehr, M. Am. Soc. C. E. 

Cost of Cutting Granite for a Dam.— In building a 
dam in the northern part of New York State, the author 
used a granitic rock. The face stones were cut to lay in 
courses with beds and joints %-in. thick. Each cut stone 
was quarry-faced and averaged 1% ft. rise x 3 ft. long x 2 
ft. deep, or about % cu. yd. A stone cutter averaged one 
such stone per 8-hr. day, or 18 sq. ft. of beds and end 
joints dressed per day. A blacksmith, at $2.50, and a 
helper, at $1.50, sharpened the points and plug drills for 
8 stone cutters. The cost o-f cutting this face stone wa» 
as follows: Per cu. yd. 

Stone cutters at $4 per 8 hrs $12.00 

'Blacksmithing 1.20 

Labor bankering stones and plugging off faces. . 1.80 

Sheds and tools 0.80 

Superintendence 1.20 

Total • $17.00 



CO^T OF STONE MASONRY, 199 

On a small portion of the work the stone was dressed to 
lay ^-in. joints, which added $6 per cu. yd. to the cost. 

Cost of Cutting Granite, New York City. — In Trans. 
Am. Soc. C. B., 1875, Mr. Wm. W. Maclay gives the cost of 
cutting 2,065 cu. yds. of granite by a force of 40 stone cut- 
ters working for the New York Department of Docks, dur- 
ing 1873 to 1875. The working day was 8 hrs. The fol- 
lowing table gives the average day's work of a stone cutter 
working for the Dock Department as compared with work 
done for contractors in New York: 

— Sq. ft. per 8-hr. day » 

Cutting Granite. For Dock For Con- 

Dept. tractors. 

Dressing beds and joints ()^ in.) 13.5 16.0 

Pointed work with 1)4 in. chisel draft all around 8.5 10.0 

Pean-hammered 6.0 7.25 

6-cut patent hammered 5.25 6.15 

8-cut patent hammered 4.25 5.00 

It will be noted that the men working for the Dock De- 
partment did about 15% less work daily than is said to have 
been the average under contractors. 

In doing this dock work there were 1,524 cu. yds. of 
dimension stones cut into headers and stretchers. The 
headers averaged 2 ft. on the face by 3 ft. deep; and the 
stretchers averaged 6 ft. long on the face by 2 ft. deep; 
the rise being 20, 22 and 26 ins. for the different courses. 
The stones were cut to lay %-in. beds and joints, the faces 
being pointed work with a 1%-in. chisel draft all around. 
The cost of this cutting was as follows: 

Percu. yd. Percent. 

Cutting (4.53 days) $13.22 48% 

Labor rolling stones 8.26 80% 

Sharpening tools... 4.13 15% 

Superintendence... 1.88 5% 

New tools and timber for rolling stones 0.28 1% 

Interest on sheds, derrick, and railroad 0.28 1% 

Total.... $27.55 100% 

In addition to this work there were 310 cu. yds, of cop- 
ing cut to lay %-in. joints, pointed on the face and with 
a chisel draft, 8-cut patent-hammered on the top, and with 
a round of 3%-in. radius. The coping stones were 8 ft. 
long, 4 ft. wide, and 2i^ ft, ri^e. The cost of cutting this 
coping was as follows:. 



200 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Per cu. yd. Per cent. 

Cutting (6.26 days) $18.27 48% 

Labor rolling stones 11.42 30% 

Sharpening tools 5.71 15% 

Superintendence 1.90 b% 

New tools and timber 0.38 1% 

Interest on sheds, etc , 0.38 1% 

Total f 38.06 100% 

It would appear from the above that the stone cutters 
received $3 for 8 hrs., but Mr. Maclay states that the pay 
was $4 for 8 hrs. If so there is some error in the other 
items, which I have calculated from the percentages given 
by him. It is difficult to understand how the "labor of 
rolling stones" could have been 30% of the total 'cost of 
cutting, unless the laborers assisted in plug and feathering 
the stones preparatory to cutting. The cost of tool sharp- 
ening (15%) was also very high. Certainly these two items 
were much higher than they would have been under a con- 
tractor. 

Mr. J. J. R. Croes states that in cutting granite for the 
gate-houses of the C'roton Rejservoir at 86th Sit., New 
York, in 1861-2, the least day's work was fixed at 15 sq. ft. 
of beds and joints. This included the cutting of a chisel 
draft around the face of the stone, the coist of which was 
about one-fourth as much as cutting a square foot of joint, 
making the actual least day's work equivalent to 17.7 sq. 
ft. of beds and joints cut. With wages of stone cutters as- 
sumed at $3 per day, from the percentages given by Mr. 
Croes, I have calculated the cost of cutting to have been 
as follows per square foot: 

Per sq. ft. 

Cutting (15 sq. ft. per day) $0,200 

Sharpening tools 0.022 

Labor moving stone in yards 0.020 

Drillers plugging off rough faces 0.008 

Superintendence 0.016 

Sheds and tools , 0.014 

Total $0,280 

The cost of all the items other than the wages of stone 
cutters was 40% of the wages of the stone cutters, or 8 cts. 
per sq. ft. 



COST OF STONE MASONRY, 201 

Cost of Quarrying, Cutting and Laying Granite. — 

In Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1875, Mr. J. J. R. Croes gives 
the following data relative to work done on the Boyd's 
Corner Dam, near New York City: 

The stone is a gneiss that is about as difficult to quarry 
as granite. The face stone for the dam average 1.8 ft. rise, 
3.6 ft. long and 2.7 ft. deep, and were cut to lay %-in. 
joints. In quarrying the dimension stone, plug and feath- 
ers were used to split the stone to size ready for cutting. 
The cost of quarrying and plug and feathering 4,000 cu. 
yds. of dimension stone ready for cutting was as follows: 

Days (10-hr.) Cost per 

per cu. yd. cu. yd. 

Foreman, at $3 0.114 $0.34 

Drillers, at $2 0.917 1.84 

Laborers, at $1.50 0.429 0.65 

Blacksmiths, at $2.50 0.102 0.25 

Tool boys, at $0.50 0.108 0.05 

Labor loading teams, at $1.50 0.284 0.42 

Total (not including explosives and teaming) $3.55 

The work was done by contract in 1867-8. The rates of 
wages were not given by Mr. Croes, but Mr. John B. Mc- 
Donald has been kind enough to give me most of the rates 
of wages as nearly as he can remember. The length of 
haul from quarry to stone yard was about a mile, and Mr. 
McDonald states that oxen were used. The cost of "teams" 
is given by Mr. Croes, as 0.62 team day per cu. yd., 
which indicates that a good deal of stone boat work was 
done, or else that there is an error in this item. 

The cost of quarrying 3,400 cu. yds. of rubble stone for 
this same dam was as follows: 

Days per Cost per 

cu. yd. cu. yd. 

Foremen, at $3 0.041 $0.12 

Drillers, at $2 0.339 0.68 

Laborers, at $1.50 0.140 0.21 

Blacksmiths, at $2.50 0.036 0.09 

Tool iboy, at $0.50 0.035 0,02 



202 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Days per Cost per 

cu. yd. cu. yd. 

Labor, loading teams, at $1.50. 0.077 $0.12 

Teams, at $4 0.141 0.56 

Total labor $1.80 

It is presumable that both the dimension stone and the 
rubble stone were measured in the dam. 

The masonry was called "rubble range," a term that 
deceived most of the contractors, for the specifications in 
fact called for stones cut to lay in courses with %-m. 
hed joints. During 3^^ years of work there were 5,200 cu. 
yds. of this ^'rubble range" cut, requiring the dressing of 
6,373 sq. ft. Each stone averaged 1.8 ft. rise, 3.6 ft. long, 
and 2.7 ft. deep., or 0.65 cu. yd. per stone. Each stone 
cutter averaged 18.7 sq. ft. of bed joints dressed per day, 
so that it took 1.57 days to dress each cubic yard of ^'rubble 
range" stone. 

The ashlar stones were called "dimension cut-stone ma- 
sonry" and were cut to lay i/i-in. joints both on bed and 
end joints, and the faces were pean hammered. The lowest 
bid on this ashlar was $30 per cu. yd., but another con- 
tractor, who had previously done the same kind of work, 
bid $60 per cu. yd. 

It took 9 days' work of a stone cutter to dress each 
cubic yard of this ashlar. 

The coping was laid in two courses; one course of stones 
12-in. rise, 30-ln. bed, and 3i/^-ft. length; the other course, 
24-in. rise, 48-in. bed, and 2V2-ft. length. The top was 
pean hammered, and the face was left rough with a chisel 
draft around it. The beds and joints were cut to lay ^-in. 
It took a stone cutter 6.1 days to dress each cubic yard 
of this ashlar. 

The cost of laying the masonry in the dam was as fol- 
lows, wages being assumed to be approximately what they 
are now (not what they were in 1875) : 

> Co8t per cu. yd. . 

A B C D 

Mason at$3.00 fO.36 fO.36 $0.25 fO.32 

Laborers at $1.50 0.28 0.28 0.22 0.2» 

Mortar mixers at $1.50 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.15 

Derrick and carmen at $1.50 0.49 0.51 0.30 0.39 

Engine at $4.00 0.18 0.20 

Teams from yard at $8.50 0.35 0.20 0.20 0.39 

Laborers loading teams at $1.50.... 0.28 0.33 0.38 0.13 

Total....,..,. , $1.91 $1.80 $1.65 $1.81 



COST OF STONE MASONRY. 203 

Columnig A and B relate to work done in 1868 and 1869 
when the stone was hoisted by hand; A was a lift of 5 ft, 
B was a lift of 10 to 20 ft. Columns C and D relate to 
work done in 1869 and 1870, when the hoisting was done 
by engines; C being a lift of 20 to 30 ft; D being a lift 
of 30 to 50 ft. It will be noted that each mason laid from 
8% to 121/^ cu. yds. per day. Each engine apparently served 
two masons, but it is not stated whether each mason had 
a separate derrick or both worked with one derrick. 

The stones were laid in inclined or sloping courses, which 
made it hard to keep them in place as a rap of a hammer 
would cause sliding. 

It will be noted that the cost of loading and hauling 
the stone from the stone yard to the dam is included in 
the above costs of laying. This cost of loading and haul- 
ing is not properly a part of the cost of laying. 

The mortar was a 1 : 2 mixture, natural cement, and it 
required 0.3 bbl. of cement, 0.093 cu. yd. sand, and 0.89 
cu. yd. of stone per cu. yd. of dam masonry. In other 
words, only 11% of the masonry was mortar! 

Cost of Plug Drilling by Hand. — By timing a number 
of mj^sons at work splitting granite blocks 24 to 30 ins. 
thick, I found that each man drilled each hole (%-'in. diam. 
X 2% ins. deep) in a trifle less than 5 mlns., by striking 
about 200 blows. It took about 1 min. for placing and 
striking each set of plug and feathers. A block 30 ins. long, 
with four plug holes, was drilled and split with the plugs 
and feathers in 24 mins., on an average. At this rate, a 
good workman can drill and plug 80 holes in 8 hrs., but 
it is not safe to count upon so large an average. 

Cost of Pneumatic Plug Drilling. — For drilling plug 
holes in granite certainly no tool is as economic as the 
pneumatic plug drill. Horizontal as well as vertical holes 
can be rapidly drilled. The ordinary plug drill, accord- 
ing to the manufacturers, consumes 15 cu. ft. of free air 
per min. at 70 lbs. pressure. At the Wachusett Dam I 
found that a workman averaged one hole (%-in. diam. x 
3 ins.) drilled in 1% mins., including the time of shifting 
from hole to hole, but not including the time of driving 
the plugs. About 250 plug holes are counted a fair day's 



204 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Work for a plug drill where the driller does not drive the 
plugs himself. 

Cost of Quarrying Granite. — ^Cost data relating to the 
quarrying of granite dimension stone are extremely hard 
to secure. I have been able to find only one writer, Mr. 
J. J. R. Croes, who has published anything on the subject. 
Mr. Croes' records, together with mine, will at least form 
a basis for approximate estimates of cost of granite quar- 
rying. My data apply to quarrying three-dimension stone 
in a sheet quarry on the coast of Maine. The total number 
of men engaged was, on the average: 6 enginemen, 6 
steam drillers, 6 drill helpers, 3 blacksmiths, 3 helpers, 5 
tool and water boys, 38 quarrymen, 47 laborers, 2 foremen 
and 1 superintendent. This force quarried and loaded on 
boats about 1,400 cu. yds. of rough granite blocks. The stone 
was loaded hy derricks onto cars from which it was un- 
loaded into boats ready for shipment. The following cost 
includes everything except interest and depreciation of 

plant, and development expenses: 

Cost 

per cu. yd. 

Enginemen, at $2 a day (of 9 hrs.) $0.20 

Steam drillers, at $2.00 0.20 

Drill helpers, at $1.50 0.15 

Blacksmiths, at $2.75 0.14 

Blk. helpers, at $1.75 0.09 

IToiol and wateriboys, at $1 0.16 

Quarrymen, at $1.75 1.09 

Laborers, at $1.50 1.15 

Foremen, at $3.00 0.15 

Superintendent, at $8 0.20 

Coal, at $5 ton 0.45 

Eixplosives 0.25 

Other supplies 0.30 

Total $4.53 

On the best month's work, when a larger force was be- 
ing operated, the cost of all labor, superintendence and 
supplies, was reduced to a little below $4 per cu. yd.; but 
the above $4.50 per cu. yd., may be taken as a fair average 
of several months' work. To this should be added the 



CO^T OF STONE MA80NRY. 205 

charges for plant rental, quarry rental (if any), stripping 
(if any), and freight charges to destination. The freight 
rate by boat from Maine to New York is about $1 a ton, 
but as rough granite blocks are always measured on their 
least dimensions, the freight charges when $1 per ton 
amount to about $2.70 per cu. yd., of three-dimension stone 
in the rough. The explosives used were black powder, 
costing $2.25 a keg (25 lbs.), and dynamite for channeling, 
costing 15 cts. a lb. The sheet from which this granite was 
quarried averaged about 6i^ ft. thick, and was nearly flat. 
The stone was loosened in long blocks by Knox blasting 
with black powder, and was split up into sizes by plug 
and feathering; both hand drills and pneumatic plug drills 
being used for this purpose. The stone, as before stated, 
was three-dimension stone. To quarry random stone (not 
rubble) in this quarry cost about $3.50 per cu. yd. 

If granite is blasted out in all shapes and sizes, to be 
used for rubble or for concrete, the cost of quarrying is 
far less than the above and is approximately the same 
as quarrying trap rock. 

'Cost of a Masonry Arcli Bridge. — ^^This arch bridge had 
a span of 30 ft., and its barrel was 60 ft. long. The ma- 
sonry was limestone laid in Portland cement mortar. There 
were 365 cu. yds. of masonry distributed as follows: 

Cu. yds. 

Arch sheeting 112 

Bench walls (or abutments) ............... 165 

Backing above arch ... 17 

Backing above haunch 38 

Wing walls 21 

Parapet walls 7 

Coping ,. 5 

Total 365 

The urch sheeting masonry was dressed to lay %-in. 
joints, and the cost of these 112 cu. yds. was as follows: 

Cu. yd. 

Quarrying rough blocks $1.00 

Plug and feathering into blocks 0.85 

Hauling and loading onto car 0.75 



206 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cu. yd. 

Freight $1.05 

Unloading from car and hauling 1 mile 0.70 

Cutting 4.55 

Laying 1.35 

Mortar 1.50 

Centers 2.20 

Total .$13.95 

This sheeting was cut to lay an arch 18 ins. thick each 
block averaging 12 x 18 x 28 ins. in size, or about % cu. yd. 
The blocks were small, but the quarry did not yield large 
material. Quarrymen were paid 30 ots. per hr. and help- 
ers ny2 cts. per hr. The unloading from cars onto wagons 
cost 35 cts. per cu. yd., wages being 15 cts. per hr.; and the 
hauling 1 mile cost 35 icts. per cu. yd., teams being 40 cts. 
per hr. 

The stone cutters were paid 35 cts. per hr., and their 
work coist $4.25 per cu. yd.; the sharpening of cutters' tools 
cost 15 cts. more per cu. yd.; and the help of laborers oc- 
casionally in bunkering a stone cost another 15 cts. per 
cu. yd.; making a total of $4.55 for cutting the stone after 
it had been plug and feathered roughly into blocks. The 
small size of the blocks made this cost high. 

The stone was laid by a hand-power derrick, the cost of 
laying being in detail as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Masons at 30 cts. per hr $0.80 

Helpers at 15 cts. per hr 0.45 

Team on stone boat, 40 cts* per hr 0.10 

Total cost of laying * $1.35 

Each mason had l^A helpers and laid 3 cu. yds. in 8 hrs. 
This was the average of all the 365 cu. yds. of masonry; 
the cost of laying each kind was not kept separately. 

The mortar was 1 : 3 Portland cement, allowing 4.5 cu. 
ft. per bbl.; it took 2 bbls. of cement and 0.9 cu. yd. sand 
to make 1 cu. yd. mortar; and the cost of these materials 
was $4.50 per cu. yd. of mortar. It took % cu. yd. of mor- 
tar for each of the 365 cu. yds. of masonry; no attempt 
was made to determine the amount of mortar for each 
kind of masonry. 



COS^T OF STONE MASONRY, 207 

The cost of the ashlar facing in the abutments and wing 
walls was the same per cubic yard as the arch sheeting 
after deducting the $2.20 for centers, that is $11.75 per cu. 
yd.; and there were about 50 cu. yds. of this in the 'bridge. 
The cost of the rubble backing in the abutments, haunch, 
etc., of which there were nearly 200 cu. yds., was as fol- 
lows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Rubble sandstone delivered at bridge $1.20 

% cu. yd. mortar, at $4.50 1.50 

Laying 1.35 

Total $4.05 

This rubble was a local sandstone, but the ashlar was 
a limestone imported by rail. 

The foregoing costs do not include foreman's salary and 
general expenses, which amounted to 15% of the total cost 
of the bridge. In addition to the 365 cu. yds. of stone ma- 
sonry there were 65 cu. yds. of concrete foundations laid 
on a hard clay. There was no cofferdamming. 

The cost of the work was higher than, it would have ibeen 
under a better foreman. 

Cost of Centers for 30-ft. Arch.-^ enters for a 
masonry arch of 30-'ft. span and having a barrel 
60 ft. long were made of hemlock. There were 21 
arch ribs or centers spaced 3 « ft. apart and lagged 
with hemlock 2 ins. thick by 6 ins. wide. Bach center 
was made of two thicknesses of 2 x 12-in. plank cut in 
fcections 6 ft. long and spiked together, breaking joints. 
The ribs were cut to the curve of the arch at a saw mill. 
The following was the bill of timber in each center: 

Ft. B. M. 

6—2 In. X 12 In. x 12 ft. curvea ribs 144 

4— 2 In. X 6 In. X 16 ft. ties 64 

1—2 In. X 6 In. X 10 ft. splices 10 

1—2 In. X 6 In. X 10 ft. post 10 

2—2 In. X 6 In. x 16 ft. struts 32 

Totalperbent 260 

2 2 centers at 260 ft. B. M 5.720 

Lagging 2 In. x 33 ft. X 60 ft 8.960 

Total.... 9.680 



208 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The machine work at the mill <?ost $20, and the carpen- 
ter work of framing the centers was $7.75 for carpenters 
at 22% cts. per hr. and $9.25 for carpenters' helpers at 15 
ots. per hr., making a total of $37. This is equivalent to 
$6.50 per M when distributed over the 5,720 ft. B. M. in 
the centers. The cost of erecting the centers with the aid 
of a hand-power derrick together with the cost of placing 
the lagging was $24, all this work being done -by laborers 
at 15 cts. per hr. This $24 distributed over all the 9,712 
ft. B. M. is $2.56 per M. Theqost of removing the centers 
after completion of the work was $10, wages being 15 cts. 
per hr., or $1.05 per M. The total cost of the centers was: 

9,712 ft. B. ,M. hemlock, at $16. ......... . . I . . . $155.51 

132 oak wedges, at 10 <its 13.20 

230 lbs. wire nails, at 3i^ cts 8.05 

Machine work at mill . . i 20.00 

Work framing centers 17.00 

Work erecting centers 24.00 

Work tearing down eeriters 10.00 

Total ...... ..........* $247.76 

It will ibe noted that the millwork and labor cost $71, 
which is equivalent to $7.30 per -M distributed over the 
9,712 ft. B. M. There were 112 cu. yds. of masonry in the 
arch alone, so that the cost of the centers distributed over 
the arch sheeting was $2.20 per cu. yd. But there were 250 
cu. yds. of masonry, all told, in the arch; the abutments, 
parapet and wing walls. The short posts supporting the 
centers rested on hard clay. 

Cost of Arcli Culverts and Abutments, Brie Canal.— 
In 1840 contracts were let for enlarging the Erie Canal. 
The courts later declared the law making the appropria- 
tion unconstitutional and the N. Y. State Legislature 
directed that the contracts be cancelled and that con- 
tractors be paid their prospective pr<)fits. The 12 engineers 
in charge of the work submitted the following estimates 
of the actual cost. The stone in masonry was limestone 
from the lower Mohawk valley. Masons and stone cutters 
were ,paid $2.25 per day of 11 hrs. worked, laborers $1. 



00^7^ OF STONE MASONRY. 209 

The cost of masonry in arch culverts and bridges was as 

follows : 

Face stone: Per cu. yd. 

Quarrying, 1 cu. yd. per man day $2.25 

'Outting, 1.3 cu. yds. per man day 2.25 

Laying, 0.7 cu. yd. per man day 1.25 

Mortar 0.75 

Total, not including hauling $6.50 

Note: The cost of quarrying includes sharpening drills, 
foremen, etc. 

Backing (rubble): 

Quarrying, 2 cu. yds. per man day $1.00 

Laying, 1.75 cu. yds. per man day 1.00 

Mortar 1.25 

Total, not including hauling $3.25 

Arch sheeting: 

Quarrying, 1 cu. yd. per man day $2.25 

Cutting, 0.88 cu. yd. per man day 3.25 

Laying, 0.7 cu. yd. per man day 1.25 

Mortar 1.00 

Total, not including hauling, or centers. . $7.75 

Ring and Coping: 

Quarrying, 0.6 cu. yd. per man day $3.40 

Cutting, 0.55 cu. yd. per man day 5.00 

Laying, 0.58 cu. yd. per man day 3.00 

Mortar 0.50 

Total, not including hauling $11.90 

The cost of hauling stone 1 mile from quarry to canal 
was 50 cts. per cu. yd., 7 round trips being made per day 
by a team hauling % cu. yd. of stone, as measured in the 
work. 

The centers for arch culverts of 4 to 8-ft. span were es- 
timated to cost 50 cts. per cu. yd. of arch masonry. For 



210 HANDBOOK OF CO^T DATA. 

spans of 10 to 15 ft. the centers cost 75 cts. per cu. yd. 
of arch masonry. 

Timber stringers covered with 2 or 3-in. plank were large- 
ly used for foundations and floors of culverts. The cost of 
placing such timber was $4 per M. 

'Cost of Lock Masonry, Eirie Canal. — ^^The following ia 
a continuation of the data just given: 

The masonry for locks was dressed as follows: Cut stone 
face, %-in. Joints; hammer dressed backing, 1-in. joints. 
Wages were as above given. 
Lock face stone: 

Quarrying, 0.67 cu. yd. per man day $3.00 

Cutting, 0.50 cu. yd. per man day 5,50 

Laying, 3.00 cu. yds. per man day 0.83 

Mortar 0.50 

Machinery 0.25 

Total, not including hauling $10.08 

Lock backing (1-in. joints) : 

Quarrying, 1 cu. yd. per man day $2.00 

Cutting, 1.8 cu. yds. per man day 1.50 

Laying, 4 cu. yds. per man day 0.62 

Mortar 0.75 

Machinery . . 0.25 

Total, not including hauling $5.12 

The average cost of lock masonry, including face and 
backing, was $7.10 per cu. yd., exclusive of trr.nsportation 
which was $2.75 per cu. yd. 

The cost of a masonry aqueduct consisting of masonry 
piers, arches and spandrels, was as follows: 
To lay pier masonry: Per day. 

1 mason $2.25 

2 tenders, at $1 2.00 

1/2 stone cutter, at $2.40 1.20 

Total, 5.9 cu. yds. laid at $0.92 per cu. yd. . . . $5.45 



C08T OF STONE MASONRY. 211 

To lay arch masonry: Per day. 

1 mason $2.25 

2 tenders : 2.00 

1 stone cutter 2.50 

Total, 8.95 cu. yds. laid at $0.76 per cu. yd. . $6.75 
To lay spandrel masonry: Per day. 

1 mason $2.25 

2 tenders 2.00 

1% stone cutters 4.00 

Total, 8.26 cu. yds. laid at $1 per cu. yd $8.25 

The total cost of aqueduct masonry, per cubic yard, ex- 
cluding the cost of laying just given, was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Quarrying $2.25 

Transportation 2.00 

Cutting 2.25 

Mortar 1.00 

Machinery 0.25 

Total, not including laying $7.75 

Approximately $0.90 per cu. yd. should be added to this 
$7.75 to Include cost of laying the masonry. 

Cost of the Sweetwater Dam. — James D. Schuyler gives 
the following data on the Sweetwater Dam, California: 
The dam is 46 ft. thick at the base, 12 ft. at the top, and 
90 ft. high. It is built as an arch with a radius of 222 ft. 
on line of face at the top. The stone was a metamorphic 
(or igneous?) rock with no well-defined cleavage, break- 
ing out in irregular masses. Its weight ranged from 175 
to 200 lbs. per cu. ft. And the average weight of the ma- 
sonry was estimated to be 164 lbs. per cu. ft. The mor- 
tar was a 1 : 3, proportioned by barrels, mixed in a Ran- 
some mixer. The mixer was given 3 or 4 turns after 
charging it with sand and cement, then the water was ad- 
mitted during the next 3 or 4 revolutions; 8 to 10 revolu- 
tions made a thorough mixture, requiring 2 to 3 mins. A 
tramway for delivering the mortar was carried around the 



212 HANDBOOK Oi" COSf DATA, 

face of the dam, on a bracket trestle held 'by bolts driven 
into holes drilled in the face of the dam masonry. A grade 
of 3 ft. in 40 at the end bf the tramway next to the mixer 
was sufficient to give the mortar car an impetus that would 
<?arry it to the farthest end of the dam. By using this 
mechanical mixer and tramway a force of 5 men and a 
horse did the work formerly done by 4 mortar mixers and 
14 hod carriers. The box of mortar was lifted from the 
car by a derrick and delivered to the masons. 

The stone was quarried from a cliff 100 ft. high situated 
800 ft. below the dam. It was hauled in wagons rigged 
with platforms on a level with the rear wheels. The quarry 
derricks were simple shear-legs, slightly inclined. All 
stones smaller than 500 lbs. were loaded on stone boats 
4 ft. square, made of 3-in. plank with a bottom of boiler 
plate and provided with chains at the corners. The shear- 
leg derricks were used to hoist the stone boats and de- 
posit their loads on the wagons. Stone boats cost $30 
each, and several sets of them were worn out on the job. 
A single stone, weighing 3 tons or more, was readily lifted 
by the shear-legs, and lowered upon a wagon driven under- 
neath. All hoisting was done by horse power. Four der- 
ricks were used on the dam, masts being 30 to 38 ft. long, 
and booms 26 to 32 ft. A fifth derrick, with a 50-ft. mast 
and a 45-ft. boom, proved far more efficient than the others. 
The work was completed Apr. 7, 1888, after 16 mos. 

The masonry was rubble throughout, amounting to 20,- 
507 cu. yds., of which 19,269 cu. yds. were in the dam 
proper; 0.86 bbl. of cement was used per cubic yard of ma- 
sonry. 

The cost of the dam was as follows: 

17,562 bbls. cement $63,111 

Hauling cement 8,614 

Liumber 2,408 

Iron work 4,916 

Powder and miscellaneous supplies 3,230 

Pipes, gates, etc 5,152 

Plant, tools, etc. 6,237 

Total for materials and plant $93,668 



CO^T OF STONE MASONRY, 213 

'Lal)or, common and skilled $93,591 

Foremen *...... ....... ^ 6,866 

Teams 19,696 

Engineering — 10,555 

Clerical work .... ...... 654 

Earthwork (by contract) 7,666 

Miscellaneous expenses 1,377 

Total for labor.. . .. $140,405 

Total for materials, etc 93,668 

Grand total $234,073 

Common laborers were paid $2 to $2.50 a day; masons, 
$4 to $5; carpenters, $3.50 to $4; blacksmiths, $4; teams 
with drivers, $5; machinists, $7 to $8; foremen, $4 to $6. 
Workmen were scarce and independent on account of the 
**boom" in California. The work cost 20 to 25% more than 
it would have cost under normal conditions. 

The Itemized cost of 11,322 cu. yds. of the masonry laid 
from May 1 to Dec. 31, 1887, was as follows per cubic yard: 

Percentage 
Per cu. yd. of total. 

Quarrying stone (labor) $0,425 4.829 

Loading stone 0.523 5.933 

Hauling stone 0.420 4.758 

Hoisting stone 0.577 6.550 

Loading and hauling sand 0.345 3.915 

Cement, at $4.20 per bbl 3.427 38.900 

Mixing and delivering mortar 0.239 2.710 

Masons 0.797 9.050 

Helpers 0.186 2.109 

Excavating foundations ,. . . 0.303 3.444 

Making and repairing roads 0.118 1.336 

Blacksmithing (labor) 0.163 1.854 

Carpentry 0.097 1.104 

Rope 0.104 1.186 

Tools 0.046 .524 

Steel 0.014 .155 

Blacksmith coal 0.009 .109 



214 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Percentage 

Per cu. yd. of total. 

Blocks and sheaves $0,011 .133 

Powder 0.086 .974 

Lumber «.195 2.220 

Wetting masonry 0.048 0.542 

Foremen 0.332 3.774 

Engineering and superintendence 0.343 3.891 

Total $8,808 100.000 

Cost of a Granite Dam, Cheyenne, Wyo. — ^Mr. A. J. 
Wiley gives the following data on a dam for the Granite 
Springs Reservoir, Cheyenne. The work was done by con- 
tract, April 20, 1903, to June 21, 1904. From Nov. 20, 1903, 
to April 11, 1904, work was closed down on account of cold 
weather. The extreme height of the dam is 96 ft., and. its 
length of the crest is 410 ft; the thickness at the base is 
56 ft, and on the top it is 10 ft It contains 14,222 cu. yds. 
of granite rubble masonry laid in 1:4 Portland mortar, ex- 
cept for the face of stones where 1 : 3 mortar was used. The 
mortar constituted 35.2% of the dam; and 0.61 bbl. cement 
was used per cubic yard of masonry. 

The mortar was mixed with a Smith mixer, in batches of 
y2 cu. yd., and the mixer output was 6 cu. yds. per hr. The 
mortar was dumped into buckets and carried on cars run- 
ning on a trestle built along the up-stream face of the 
dam. Derricks on top of the dam hoisted the mortar 
buckets. 

The granite was a gabbro, quarried about 100 ft below 
the dam. It was devoid of cleavage and was blasted out 
in large masses from an open face 20 to 40 ft high. The 
drilling was done by hand. For each cubic yard of rock 
there were used 0.35 lb. of dynamite and 1.05 lbs. of black 
powder The stones averaged 2 cu. yds., but pieces con- 
taining 5 cu. yds. were used. 

Rocks breaking smaller than 3 cu. yds. were used as 
they were blasted out of the quarry, and larger masses 
were split up by plug and feather into roughly rectangular 
shapes. The best shaped stones were used for face stones, 
the ordinary rough rocks were used in the body of the 
dam, and the smaller pieces made the spalls. The rock 
was taken from the quarry by a guyed derrick with 40-ft. 



COST OF STONE MASONRT, 215 

boom, and loaded upon platform cars. The track was laid 
upon such a grade that the loaded cars ran alone and the 
empties were pushed back by hand. The trestle which car- 
ried the track was supported by the steps on the down- 
stream side of the dam. Upon the top of the dam were 
located two guyed derricks with 40-ft. booms similar to the 
quarry derrick. Each of the three derricks was operated 
by a 10-ton hoisting engine located in an engine house near 
the south end of the dam. The derricks on top of the dam 
took the rock from the cars on the lower side of the dam 
and set them in the masonry. They also took the mortar 
buckets from the cars on the up-stream side of the dam 
and dumped them where needed on top of the dam. 

Spalls were brought upon the dam in skips, holding about 
a cubic yard each, and kept in the skips until used. The 
mortar was usually dumped in half-yard batches in a con- 
venient depression of the masonry, and was distributed 
with long-handled, round-pointed shovels. 

The up-stream face was laid with the joints in the true 
plane of the face. No objection was made to having the 
convexity of a stone project beyond this plane, but no 
stones with concave faces were permitted in the face of 
the dam. The upper 20 ft. of the down-stream face were 
laid in the same manner, but the rest of the down-stream 
face was laid in rough steps with half the step inside and 
half outside the theoretical plane of this face. The stone 
in both these faces were laid to break joint and were well 
bonded into the body of the dam. In the body of the dam 
but little attention was paid to the bond of the work, the 
irregular stones insuring this without effort, but every 
precaution was taken to insure the filling of voids. To this 
end the mortar was used very wet, even sloppy, and the 
chief rule observed was that there should first be placed 
a large excess of mortar of which the largest possible per- 
centage was to be displaced by rock. In setting the large 
rock, a bed was prepared with spalls and mortar, and then 
a considerable excess of mortar was placed on the bed. 
The rock was then slowly lowered and settled on the bed 
by working it with bars. The excess mortar would ooze 
from under the rock which would then float upon an even 
layer of mortar, filling all the spaces under it. During this 
operation the inspector, either standing upon the rock or 
having his hand upon it, can tell if the rock is riding or 



216 EANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

rocking, and, if necessary, has the rock raised and the 
bed readjusted. The large rock were set as close as pos- 
sible to each other without being in contact, the interven- 
ing spaces being filled with mortar and spalls. In this 
work the masons were not permitted to sandwich the spalls 
between layers of mortar, but were required to first fill the 
space with wet mortar in which the spalls were submerged, 
displacing as much as possible of the mortar. While it was 
the intention to have the masonry brought up in horizontal 
benches extending the full length of the dam, the exigencies 
of the work prevented this and the middle portion of the 
dam was completed first, stepping off toward each end. 
The average rate of progress was 60 cu. yds. of masonry 
per day of ten hours. The best monthly rate was 2,370 
cu. yds. during July, 1903, averaging 83 cu. yds. for a 
ten-hour day, or 41.5 yds. of masonry per ten-hour day for 
a single derrick, including the time lost in moving and re- 
setting derricks. During this month the average daily 
force employed was as follows: In the quarry, 21.3 men, 
IVs engine runners, and one derrick; in screening and 
hauling sand, 3.2 teams with drivers, and 3.2 men; in 
mixing and delivering mortar, 3 men; in laying masonry, 
3.5 masons, 6.5 helpers, 2% engine runners, and 2 derricks. 

The following were the average wages paid per 10-hr. 
day: Quarrymen, $2.50; masons, $5.00; masons' helpers, 
$2.25 to. $2.50; engine runners, $3.00; common labor, $2.25. 

The actual cost of the masonry was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

0.652 cu. yd. solid rock, $1.96 $1.28 

0.348 cu. yd. mortar (not incl. cement), at $1.93.. 0.67 

0.613 bbl. cement, at $3.58, delivered 2.19 

Labor laying 1 cu. yd 1.11 

Total $5.25 

The solid rock was quarried and delivered for $1.96 per 
cu. yd. (solid), itemized as follows: 

Quarrying and Delivering: Per cu. yd. 

(solid). 

Common labor $1.06 

Engine runners ^-1^ 

Coal, $6 per ton 0.08 



COST OF ^TONE MASONRY, 217 

Per cu. yd. 
(solid). 

Blacksmithing $0.13 

Steel 0.04 

Explosives 0.15 

Interest and dep. on plant ($1,644) 0.18 

General expenses 0.18 

Total per cu. yd. (solid) $1.96 

This is equivalent to $1.28 per cu. yd. measured in the 
dam. 1 

The cost of securing the sand and mixing the mortar 
was as follows per cu. yd. of mortar: 

Per cu. yd. 

Labor digging and hauling (teams) sand $1.10 

Blacksmithing, sand pit 0.13 

General expense, sand pit 0.19 

Labor mixing and delivering 0.30 

Fuel, $6 per ton 0.04 

Interest and depreciation on plant ($620) 0.12 

General expense 0.05 

Total per cu. yd. mortar $1.93 

The cost of laying the masonry was as follows per cu. 
yd. of masonry: 

Per cu. yd. 

Labor, masons and helpers $0.50 

Engine runners 0.18 

Fuel, $6 per ton 0.10 

Blacksmithing 0.02 

Interest and depreciation on plant ($3,000) 0.22 

General expense 0.09 

Total $L11 

The interest and depreciation on the plant was assumed 
to be 50% of the first cost of the plant. The fuel was es- 
timated on the basis of 5 lbs. of coal per horse-power hour 
of actual working time for the nominal horse-power of 
the engines. As a matter of factj a large amount of cord 
wood was used instead of coal. 



218 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of a Rubble Dam. — ^^This dam was built in 1898 
by contract, under the direction of Mr. George W. Rafter, 
M. Am. Soc. 0. E., across the Indian River, HamiHton 
County, N. Y., and is described in Engineering News, May 
18, 1899. The main dam was 7 ft. wide on top, 47 ft. high, 
33 ft. wide on bottom, and 400 ft. long. The face masonry 
was dressed to lay l^/^-in. Joints. The backing was large 
irregular rubble stones laid in beds of 1 : 3^/4 mortar, and 
the vertical joints filled with 1 : 3^/4 : iVz concrete. No 
attempt was made to keep separate accounts of the face 
masonry and the backing, but it was estimated that 27% 
of the dam was mortar. The stone was a pink synetic 
granite, quarried 500 ft. from one end of the dam. There was 
no difficulty in quarrying regular blocks for the face. The 
sand was loaded upon a scow holding 30 cu. yds. and hauled 
2 miles down the river. A foreman and 6 men, by using 
a windlass, rope and sail, handled the scow. They loaded 
and delivered 720 cu. yds. of sand and 180 cords of wood per 
month, at a cost of about $310. Wages of common laborers 
were $1 a day and board, and it is probable that the board 
cost $0.50 per man per day. 

The plant to build the dam cost $10,340. The actual cost 
of the dam to the contractor was : 

Labor clearing 35 miles of margins, 1,160 acres .... $13,000 

Hauling cement and supplies 22 miles 6,836 

Freight, cement and supplies 960 

Barn account (teams owned by contractor) 725 

Stone, cement and other materials 18,830 

Labor (not including clearing) 31,218 

General expense 9,601 

Interest 1,150 

Insurance 1,235 

Depreciation of plant, est. 33% 3,450 

Total $87,005 

The "general expense" includes coffer-damming and 
pumping, erecting and wrecking the plant, etc. The time 
occupied in doing the work was 7 months. 



COST OF STONE 3IAS0NRY. 219 

In July and August, when the work was well under way, 
the cost of the masonry was very low, and averaged as fol- 
lows : 

Per cu. yd. 

Quarrying face stone (not incl. backing) $0.35 

Labor laying masonry 0.53 

pointing masonry 0.15 

Mixing mortar and concrete, and crushing 0.20 

Cement 2.00 

Sand 0.15 

General expense and superintendence 0.27 

Total $3.65 

In addition to this there was the cost of quarrying the 
stone for the backing; but this stone was paid for as ex- 
cavation, so it is not included above. During July and 
August this excavation cost 46 cts. per cu. yd. 

It will be noted that the accounts were not well kept, 
for no statement is given of the proportion of backing to 
face stone. The quarrying of the face stone doubtless cost 
several dollars per cubic yard of the face stone, although it 
amounted to only $0.35 per cu. yd. when distributed over all 
the masonry. Nor is it stated what the dressing cost. 
From measurements on a drawing of the cross-section of 
the main dam, I estimate that it runs 29 cu. yds. of masonry 
per lin. ft., of which about 30% is face stone, if we allow a 
depth of 2y2 ft. of face stone extending into the dam; but 
in the lower third of the dam, where there is great breadth, 
the face stone would not be more than 20% of the total 
masonry, and at the bottom only 15%. Hence if the work 
in July and August was in the lower part of the dam, as it 
doubtless was, we must multiply the $0.35, above given, by 
at least 5 to secure an approximate estimate of the cost of 
quarrying a cubic yard of the face stone. Indeed, it is likely 
that the cost of face stone was more than 5 times $0.35 per 
cu. yd. 

I have gone into these details for the purpose of showing 
how little value there often is in published cost records, be- 



220 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

cause of the failure of engineers to keep their cost records 
properly. The wages of quarrymen and masons are not 
given. 

Data on Laying Masonry With a Gableway. — In 

Trans. Am. Soc. C. B., Vol. 31, 1894, Mr. Spencer Miller givesi 
data on 'the use of cableways for laying masonry. The 
Basin Creek Dam for the water-works of Butte, Mont., is 
120 ft. high and 300 ft. long, designed by Mr. Chester B. 
Davis. A cahleway, 892 ft. between towers, spanned the 
dam and the quarry. No derricks were used on the dam, 
for, iby using a sijubbing post and a horse, the stones could 
be swung where desired. In 16 days a gang of 86 men 
quarried and laid 1,430 cu. yds. of masonry. This gang in- 
cluded 6 masons, quarrymen, firemen, and all laborers about 
the dam and camp. These six masons averaged 15 cu. yds. 
of masonry each per day. 

At Rochesteer, N. Y., two cableways, side by side and 60 
ft. apart, were used to erect a stone arch bridge 630 ft. long 
and towers 50 ft. high. A 30 HP., 8^/4 x lO-in., engine was 
used for each cableway. Stones were laid between the 
cableways by hitching the hoisting lines of both cableways 
to the same stone. To lay the miasonry piers a frame was 
used which straddled the piers and on top of which a 
traveler was used to place the stone as fast as it was de- 
livered by the cableway. After a pier was completed the 
framework and traveler were lifted by the cableways to the 
site of the next pier, in less than 10 minutes. The centers 
for the arches were lifted into place iby the cableways. This 
highway bridge contained 2,200 cu. yds. of masonry in piers 
and arches, 2,278 cu. yds. arch sheeting, 2,660 cu. yds. con- 
crete spandrel backing, and 310,000 lbs. of iron work; 350 M 
of lumber were used in the centers. 

Cost of Masonry and Timber €rib Dam. — ^^Mr. Maurice 
S. Parker, M. Am. Soc. C. B., gives data on the Black Etagle 
Falls Dam, Missouri River, Great Falls, Mont. The work 
was done by day labor (Apr. 15, 1890, to Jan. 6, 1891) under 
Mr, Parker's supervision, wages being as follows: Common 
labor, $2; stone masons, $4; carpenters, $3.50; quarrymen, 
$2.25; stone cutters, $4.50; quarry foremen, $3.50; mason 



COST OF STONE MASONRY, 221 

foremen, $5; stone cutter foremen, $5; carpenter fore'- 
men, $5. 

The stone was a red sandstone weighing 160 to 170 lbs. 
(some specimens 178 lbs.) per cu. ft., and was quarried from 
the bed of the river, the average haul being 500 ft. on push 
cars. The stone occurs in vertical strata 1 to 4 ft. thick, 
the bedding planes making an angle of 45° with the currenit. 
Timber was delivered near the gate chambers. Cement 
used was Milwaukee and Buffalo mixed 1:2. Portland 
cement was used in freezing weather and gave perfect satis- 
faction, being now as hard as stone. The following table 
gives the cost of the labor in construction, including all 
handling of materials after unloading from cars: 

Cost of labor. 

4,600 cu. yds. first class rubble, at $6.56 $30,438 

1,500 cu. yds. cut stone masonry, at $16.40 24,600 

5,000 cu. yds. dry stone filling in cribs, at $2.10 . . 10,500 
10,000 cu. yds. excav., half rock, half earth, at $1.07 10,700 

1,200 M timber in cribs, at $10.85 13,020 

100 M timber in gates and chambers, at $33.72 3,372 
Engineering expenses, 12 mos 5,900 

Total cost of labor $98,530 

The expense of false work of all kinds, such as coffer- 
dams, tramways, etc., amounted to 5% of the total cost and 
is divided proportioinately between the classes of work 
above given. The cost of labor on timlber in gates and 
chambers includes the cost of placing all irons and gearing. 
The total cost of the dam was $175,000, including materials, 
labor and salaries. About 20% of the rubble was broken 
range faced. The cut-stone masonry was laid With close 
beds and joints. 

The minimum flow of the river is 4,000 cu. ft. per sec. 
The average depth of water was 2 ft. when work was begun, 
but it was very swift as the rapids at the site of the dam 
had a fall of 2 ft. in a 100 ft. During June floods the depth 
was 6 ft. The crib dam is 745 ft. long, and the canal and 
gates occupy an additional width of 95 ft. The average 
height of the dam is 14 ft., resting on a ledge of sandstone. 



222 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The longitudinal timt)ers of the crib are spaced 8 ft. c. to c. 
The bottom timbers were cut to fit the rock, bedded in 
cement mortar and drift bolted to plugs of wood driven into 
holes drilled in the ledge rock. 

The work was begun on the north side of the river, a 
sheer dam being first built to divert the stream from the 
dam site. This sheer dam consisted of wooden horses 
placed 8 ft. apart, with stringers of 4-in. plank. A facing 
of 2-in. tongue and grooved planks was placed on the up- 
stream legs of the horses, and a row of sand-filled bags 
placed at the toe of the planks. There was a little leakage, 
and the leakage water was diverted by a second row of sand 
bags parallel with the first row, and a short distance down 
stream. This sheer dam withstood a flood 6 ft. deep. 

On the south side of the river, which was deeper and 
swifter, it was necessary to sink small triangular stone- 
filled cribs to support the wooden horses for the sheer dam. 
These cribs were of 4-in. plank with 6-in. posts, each hold- 
ing 1 cu. yd. of stone, and were placed 8 ft. apart, each crib 
supporting a horse. At times the depth of water against 
this sheer dam was 15 ft., but the leakage was easily cleared 
with hand pumps. 

To close the long gap between the two ends of the dam, 
wooden horses were placed 8 ft. apart with a foot walk of 
4-in. plank on top, and heavy timbers to hold the horses 
down. From this temporary bridge a second tier of horse 
bents was placed (8 ft. c. to c.) on the up-stream side, 
connected with 4-in. stringers and sheeted with 4-in. plank. 
The dam was intended to break the force of the current, 
which it did admirably. The leakage was taken care of in 
sections by small sheer dams built of matched plank, and 
by the use of sand bags. Every 48 ft., an opening of 14 ft. 
was left in the crib dam which was used as a temporary 
sluiceway when the coffer dam was removed. These gaps 
were subsequently closed with planks, and the cribwork 
with its stone filling built in. 

Cost of I«aying Masonry, Dunning's Dam. — In Trans. 
Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 32, p. 389, Mr. E. Sherman Gould de- 
scribes The Dunning's Dam near Scranton, Pa. The dam is 



COST OF STONE MASONRY. 223 

masonry on a concrete foundation, built by contract. The 
stone for the masonry was a conglomerate laid in swimming 
beds of mortar. On one occasion one foreman, 8 masons and 
about 9 helpers laid nearly 500 cu. yds. -of rubble in 76 hrs., 
using a double drum engine and derrick. This is equivalent 
to 8.2 cu. yds. per 10-hr. day per mason. On another occa- 
sion, another foreman, 7 masons and 8 or 9 helpers laid 375 
cu. yds. in 7 days, or 7.6 cu. yds. per mason per day. This 
was very rapid work in both cases. 

Cost of Quarrying and liaying a I^imestone AVall. — 

Mr. James W. Beardsley is authority for the following data 
on the cost of quarrying and laying limestone for retaining 
walls on the Chicago Canal. The contractors selected parts 
of the canal where the limestone occurred in strata that 
were uniform, so that the beds of the stone quarried re- 
quired no dressing. The stone was laid in courses averaging 
about 15 ins. thick, the better stone being selected for the 
face of the wall. Guy derricks having a capacity of 6 to 
10 tons, boom 40 to 60 ft. long, operated by a hoisting en- 
gine, were used for loading the stone. Black powder was 
used to shake up the ledges and the stone was then barred 
and wedged out. The cost per cu. yd. is the average of 93,- 
500 cu. yds., measured in retaining walls. The mortar was 
only 13^/4% of the wall, indicating an unusually even bedded 
stone that squared up well. Tfie cost does not include gen- 
eral superintendence, installation of plant, plant rental, 
powder, material for repairs, and cost arising from delays. 

Mr. Beardsley has evidently divided the number of work- 
ing days credited to each class of men by the total num- 
ber of days worked on the job, which results in giving frac- 
tions of days labor in the following typical force. 

Per cu. yd. 
Quarry force: masonry. 

1 foreman, at $3.50 $0,078 

2.11 derrickmen, at $1.50 0.075 

8.42 quarrymen, at $1.65 0.312 

1.10 enginemen, at $2.25 0.052 

2.28 laborers, at $1.50 0.080 

0.33 waterboy, at $1.00 0.007 



224 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Per cu. yd. 
masonry. 

0.27 blacksmith, at $2.50 $0,013 

0.18 blacksmith's help, at $1.75 0.007 

0.36 drill runner, at $2.00 0.023 

0.07 drill helper, at $1.50 0.002 

0.04 watchman, at $1.50 0.001 

0.29 team, at $3.50 0.028 

1.12 derricks, at $1.25 0.040 

0.36 drill, at $1.25 0.015 

Total quarry force $0,733 

Wall force: 

1 foreman, at $4.25 $0,113 

4.20 masons, at $3.50 0.354 

1.46 maisons' helpers, at $1.50 0.058 

1.81 mortar mixers, at $1.50 0.073 

0.66 mortar laborer, at $1.50 0.027 

1.82 hod carriers, at $1.50 0.073 

1.77 derrickmen, at $1.50 0.071 

1 engineman, at $2.25 0.054 

1.63 laborers, at $1.50 0.065 

0.45 waterboy, at $1.00 0.009 

0.86 team, at $3.50 0.078 

0.20 carpenters, etc., at $2.50 0.010 

1.59 derricks, at $1.50 .^ 0.042 

Total wall force $1,027 

This wall force of 16 men laid 37 cu. yds. per 10-hr. day, 
each mason averaging 8.8 -cu. yds. The rates for derricks, 
etc., apply to the cost of fuel, at $2 a ton. The wall der- 
ricks were stiff-legs, having booms 40 ft. long, and were 
moved on a track parallel with the wall. 

Work was done between Sept., 1894, and Oct., 1896, with a 
plant having a total value of $30,200. The total cost of the 
masonry was as follows: 

Quarry force $0.73 

Wall force 1.03 

Sand, at $1.35 per cu. yd 0.13 

Cement, at 60 cts. per bbl 1 0.24 

Total $2.1S 



COST OF STONE MASONRY, 



225 



If the full cost of the plant is charged to the work, an- 
other 32 cts. per cu. yd. must be added for plant. 

The mortar was mixed 1 : 1, and Louisville (natural) 
cement was used, each bag being called 2 cu. ft. 

The wall averaged 24 ft. high, and was 4 ft. wide for the 
upper 8 ft., then it widened to 12 ft. at the base. It was 
laid in courses 12 to 18 ins. thick. 

Cost of Laying Bridge Pier Masonry. — ^^Mr. Gustave 
Kaufman gives the following data on the abutments and 
piers of a highway bridge across the Ohio River at Cin- 
cinnati. The total length of the bridge is 2,966 ft, with 
a 24-ft. roadway and two 7-ft. sidewalks. There are two 
abutments, nine masonry piers, of which four piers are 
founded on limestone, and five on piles. There are 28 
pedestals for the steel viaduct approaches. The center 
span of the bridge has a clear height of 102 ft. above low 
water. Work on the substructure was begun May 1, 1890, 
and floods caused many delays, so that the bridge was inot 
opened till Aug., 1891. 

Louisville cement was used throughout, except Portland 
cement for pointing. Piers Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 9 are Ohio 
River freestone, with a backing of freestone. Where pile 
foundations were used, the heads of piles were imbedded 

DIMENSIONS OHIO BIVEB PIERS. 



Pier 

No. 


Size 


Height 


Size at 


Cubic 




Under 


Over 


Base of 


Yards 


Remarks. 


Coping. 


^ All. 


Shaft. 


Masonry. 






Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 






1 


5 X 30 


26.2 


6.4 X 31.4 


146.2 


Square shaft. 


2 


5 X 30 


39.4 


7.6 X 32.6 


271.7 


** 


3 


6 X 30 


47.0 


9.1 X 38.1 


393.9 


Circular shaft. 


4 


9 X 34 


74.0 


13.8 X 49.5 


1,432.9 




5 


10 X 34 


112.8 


17.3 X 53.7 


2,357.6 




6 


10 X 34 


104.1 


17.8 X 54.2 


2,475.6 




7 


9 X 34 


93.4 


16.0 X 51.8 


1,974.1 




8 


7 X 32 


87.1 


13.4 X 46.8 


1,393.3 




9 


7 X 32 


37.3 


9.6 X 34.6 


330.1 


Square shaft. 



Note .—Pier No. 3, height includes caisson. The coping of all piers 
was Bedford oolitic limestone 18 ins thick, except for piers 5 and 6 
which had a 24-in. coping. There were 2,173 cu. yds. of masonry in the 
ramps on both sides of the river. 



226 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

in 3 to iV2 ft. of concrete foundation. Piers 4 to 8, inclu- 
sive, are of Berea sandstone with a backing, or hearting, 
of concrete, up to the 'belt course, above which the masonry 
is Ohio River freestone entirely. The dimensions of the 
piers are shown in the table on page 225. 

The masonry was laid with the help of derrick scows, 
and the cost of laying the 280 cu. yds. above the starling 
course was $1.25 per cu. yd., including the cost of sand 
and cement. The cost of laying the sub-coping and coping 
was $1.45 per cu. yd., including sand and cement. 
The cost of laying masonry and concrete, courses 
5 to 21, was $1.30 per cu. yd., including sand and 
cement. These costs do not include cofferdams. Wages 
were as follows, per 10-hr. day: Common labor, $1.50; 
masons, $3.25; stone cutters, $3.50; engineman, $2.00; 
foreman, $4.00. 

The face stones were laid alternate headers and stretch- 
ers, stones being not less than SV2 ft. long, dressed to 
%-in. bed joints and %-in. vertical joints for at least 12 ins. 
back of the face. The width of each stone was 1^/4 times the 
depth of the course. 

The cost of laying Pier 5 was $0.73 per cu. yd., courses 
1 to 37; and $1.11 per cu. yd., courses 38 to 54; and $1.10 
per €u. yd., courses 55 and 56; the cost of sand and ce- 
ment is included in all cases. 

Cost of the Sodom Dam.— ^In Trans. Am. Soc. C. K, 
Vol. 28, 1893, p. 185, Mr. Walter McCulloch gives the fol- 
lowing data on the Sodom Dam, on the east branch of the 
Croton River, N. Y. The dam is 500 ft. long ait the coping, 
240 ft. long at top of foundation, 53 ft. thick at founda- 
tion, 12 ft. thick under coping, and 78 ft. high above 
ground line. iWork was begun Feb. 22, 1888, and completed 
Oct. 29, 1892. The contractor paid laborers $1.25 a day, 
and masons, $3.50. There were 35,887 cu. yds. of masonry 
of all classes. Of this 23,600 cu. yds. were rubble laid in 
1 : 2 Portland mortar, 6,300 cu. yds. rubble in 1 : 3 mortar, 
780 cu. yds. of granite dimension stone masonry, 4,300 cu. 
yds. limestone face masonry, and 530 cu. yds. of brick 
masonry. The face masonry and brickwork were laid in 



COST OF STONE MASONRY. 



227 



i 


Footings. 

Masonry (with con- 
crete backing), 
haying semi-cir- 
cular ends. 

Starling course. 

Hood courses. 

Masonry with rub- 
ble backing, 
courses 22 to 38. 

Sub-coping. 

Coping. 


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COST OF STONE MASONRY, 229 

1 : 2 Portland mortar. The rubble was quarried l^i, miles 
from the dam and hauled on double team trucks carrying 
1 to iy2 cu. yds. per load, making 6 to 8 trips a day. The 
rock was a hard, close grained gneiss of irregular cleav- 
age. The face stones (4,300 cu. yds.) were quarried at a 
limestone quarry 7 miles away and delivered on cars of 
the N. Y. & N. E. R. R. These stones were cut for 30-in. 
courses, stretchers being ZV2 ft. long, and headers 4 ft. 
long. Dimension stones (780 cu. yds.) were granite from 
Wilmington, Del. Cement cost from $2.31 to $2.51 per bbl. 
The cost of the rubble stone delivered on the work from 
the quarry was $1.97 per cu. yd., including 5 cts. quarry 
royalty. Rubble stone and spalls from the excavation 
waste banks cost $0.67 per cu. yd. The average cost of 
ruibble stone was $1.26. The actual cost of rubble masonry 
in 1:2 mortar Was $4.45 per cu. yd. The actual cost of 
limestone for face work was $9.75 per cu. yd., including 
15 cts. quarry royalty, but not including laying and mor- 
tar. The cost of dimension granite on the work, includ- 
ing dressing, was $30.08 per cu. yd. The cost of the cof- 
fer-damming and other work is not given. 

A cable way spanned the dam, 2-in. cable, 7 lbs. per ft., 
667-ft. span, sag 25 ft. under 10-ton load. The cableway 
plant cost $3,800. After four months' use the cable, under 
a load of O'nly 6 tons, broke 50 ft. from, one tower, at a 
place where stone and cement skips were taken up. A 
new cable was installed, the towers raised 10 ft. so as to 
give it more sag, and it served till the end of the work. 
The cableway anchors were oak deadmen, 2 ft. diameter 
hy 10 ft. long, in trenches in rock 6 ft. deep. The ma- 
sonry was laid with fixed derricks and with a traveling 
derrick on a 30-ft. trestle running upon a track of 36-ft. 
gage. The best month's work was 3,000 cu. yds. laid with 
12 masons and three derricks; the average progress was 
1,700 cu. yds. per month. The Giant Portland cement 
came in duck bags of 100 lbs. each (93 lbs. net), four to 
the barrel. The Union natural cement came in 100-lb. ibags 
(96 lbs. net), three to the barrel. The sand and cement 
were mixed dry (3 turns with shovels) and delivered in 
boxes on the work where it was wet as needed. Rubble 



230 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

stones varied from 1 cu. ft. to 1 cu. yd. in size, and in 
placing them the beds of mortar were made very full and 
the stone thoroughly shaken till firm. Mortar was filled 
into the joints and then all the spalls that it would take 
were forced in. C^are was taken not to build the rubble 
up in courses. In freezing weather, above 20°, hot brine 
(5 lbs. salt to 1 bbl. of water) and heated sand were used 
for the mortar. Salt and sand were sprinkled over the 
fresh mortar at night. In the spring the mortar laid in 
freezing weather could 'be scaled off 1-16 to 1-8 in. deep, 
but under this it was hard. In laying the foundation it 
was found that springs of water would wash the cement 
out of the concrete, so it proved better to lay beds of rub- 
ble made of small stones. The water could be led around 
the rubble and nursed from place to place till finally a 
small well, 2 ft. in diameter and 1 to 2 ft. deep, would 
be formed where the water boiled up. When the mortar 
about each little well had set, the water was bailed out, 
the well quickly filled with dry mortar, a bed of stiff wet 
mortar laid on top and covered with a large rubble stone. 
When the water was turned in behind this dam there were 
no leaks. This was in a large measure due to the use of 
rich mortar and careful work. No cracks developed. 

Cost of Dams and Locks, Black Warrior River. — 

Mr.R.C.McCalla gives the following data relative to the cost 
of building masonry locks and dams on the Black Warrior 
River, Alabama. The work was done by hired labor for 
the Government, in 1888 to 1895. The stone is a sandstone 
quarried near the locks along the banks of the river and 
in the river bed. The stone for Lock and Dam No. 3 was 
quarried in a reef just above falls 7 ft. high. The quarry 
covered two acres, and was operated to a depth of 12 to 
18 ft. during low water, requiring only two 3-in. Pulsome- 
ter pumps to keep it drained. 

The face stone of locks Nos. 1, 2 and 3 were set in 1 : 3 
Portland mortar (cement measured loose); the backing 
was partly set in mortar and partly in 1:3:5 concrete. 
Stiff-leg derricks were used to set the stones. 

In October, 1891, 200 cu. yds. of backing and 600 cu. yds. 



COST OF STONE MASONRY, 



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232 HANDBOOK OF CO^.T DATA. 

of dimension stone were quarried for Lock No. 2, Black 
Warrior River, Tuskaloosa, Ala. The stone was a fine 
quality of blue sandstone quarried from the bed of the 
river at the falls, after diverting the water. The cost of 
quarrying these 800 cu. yds. was $1,598, or about $1 per 
cu. yd. for the backing and $2.33 per cu. yd. for the dimen- 
sion stone. In this month 434 cu. yds. of dimension stone 
were cut by stone cutters at a cost of $6.83 per cu. yd. 
The masonry walj is 390% ft. long, 8 to 14 ft. wide, and 
34 ft. high, built in courses of ashlar 18 to 24 ins. thick, 
and about 50 per cent, cut stone. In October two gangs of 
masons, using two derricks, laid 1,563 cu. yds. of first-class 
masonry at a total cost of 92% cts. per cu. yd., including 
the cost of screening sand, mixing mortar, operating steam 
hoists, unloading material at the wall and converting them 
into masonry. The itemized cost of the mason work was: 

Foreman, 1 mo $90.00 

Masons, 202 days of 8 hrs., at $2.80 565.60 

Laborers, 35% days of 8 hrs., at $1.20 42,15 

Laborers, 270i^ days of 8 hrs., at $1.00 270.50 

Laborers, 369% days of 8 hrs., at $0.80 295.70 

Laborers, 146% days of 8 hrs., at $0.60 88.05 

Boys, 831^ days of 8 hrs., at $0.40 33.30 

Wages paid in board 42.00 

Fuel for hoists 18.49 

Total, at 92% cts. per cu. yd , . .$1,445.79 

It will be noted that the wages of laborers were very 
low. Doubtless the men were negroes. 

On the south wall of Lock No. 2, Black Warrior River, 
during Aug., 1892, two gangs of masons, three masons to 
the gang, with helpers, laid and pointed 2,370 cu. yds., 
about 40% of which was dry rubble wall, the rest 'being 
fist-class masonry in Portland cement mortar. This is 16 
cu. yds. per mason per 8-hr. day. The following includes 
the cost of screening sand, mixing mortar, unloading ma- 
terials at the wall, operating steam hoists, fuel for same, 
laying and pointing the masonry: 



COST OF STONE iMASONRY. 233 



Foreman, 1 mo $100.00 

Masons, 147>^ days, at $3.50 516.25 

Laborers, 27 >^ days, at $1.50 41.25 

Laborers, 108 days, at $1. 25 135.00 

Laborers, 510 1^ days, at $1.00 510.50 

Laborers, 216 days, at $0.80 172.80 

Laborers, 186K days, at $0.75 139.88 

Laborers, 103 days, at $0.55 56.65 

Boys, SIX days, at $0.50 43.88 

Wages paid in board 100.00 

Fuel 22.75 

Total, at 77.6 cts. per cu. yd $1,838.96 

Cost of Kock-flll Dams. — The three dams on the 
Black Warrior River, built by hired labor, were of the 
rock-fiil type without mortar or core- walls. The down 
stream face is composed of large roughly dressed* stones, 
laid in steps and dowelled together. A timber crib is built 
into the upper face of the dam and sheathed with. 6 x 12- 
in. plank. The dams were built during low water, without 
cofferdamming. Floating and stationary derricks were 
used. Sandstone for dams Nos. 1 and 2 was delivered by 
barge, and for No. 3 by rail, a track being laid on stone- 
filled cribs along the toe of the dam. The cost of this 
work i^ given in the table on page 234. 

^Crib No. l.-s —Crib No. 2.-s r-Crib No. 3.-. 
Lumber and 

Iron Ft.B.M. 34,453 $13.65 33,109 $12.68 33,109 $14.16 

Carpenter 

work Ft.B.M. 34,453 6.94 33,109 6.83 33,109 12.62 

Filling rocls; Cu.Yds. 1,640 0.35 1,105 0.24 1,090 0.46 

Total.... $1,277 $909 $1,390 

Note :— Crib No. 1 is 29 ft. 10 ins. high, 11 ft. 8 ins. wide, and 90 ft. 
long; Cribs Nos* 2 and 3 are 28 ft. 8 ins. high, 11 ft. 6 ins. wide, a^d 
9u ft. long. The cribs are of 6 x 8 in. yellow pine with cross-pieces at 
intervals of 5 ft., drift-bolted together, and filled with one-man stone. 

Cost of Limestone and Sandstone Slope-Walls. — The 

following is an abstract of one of my articles appearing in 
Engineering News, June 11, 1903: 

A slope- wall is practically a stone block pavement laid 
upon a sloping face of earth to protect it from erosion. 
The "wash" of passing boats in canals makes necessary 
some such protection of the earth in certain places. The 
beating of waves upon the sides of a reservoir or small 
lake acts in a similar manner, and a slope- wall is usually 
provided to resist the erosion. The concave side of a 



234 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 









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COST OF STONE MASONRY, 



235 



river bank is occasionally protected by slope-walling, with 
perhaps a line of piling at the toe of the wall. 

A dry slope-wall, it will be seen, is an engineering struc- 
ture often used, although very little exists in print as to its 
design or cost. Sinre the forces acting upon a slope-wall 
are not readily measurable,, the design is an art, and not 
a science. Recorded experience of others, personal expe- 
rience of the designer and common sense should govern the 
design. 

The oldest slope-walls on the Erie Canal were made of 
cobblestones rammed solidly into the bank, and placed so 
that the stoues touched one another. Cobbles for this pur- 
pose were gathered from fields or creek beds, and ranged 
in diameter from 4 ins. to 12 ins., the average being about 




Fig. 9. Face of a Good 
Second-class Slope Wall. 



EN6.NEWS. • • ' 

Fig. 8. Cross-section of Slope Wall. 
6 or 8 ins. These cobble slope-walls while not as hand- 
some as those made of dressed quarry stone were in fact 
more durable, for the shales and limestone ledges alo-ng 
the route of the Erie Canal furnish stone more or less sub- 
ject to weathering. Cobbles, or ''hardheads," on the icon- 
trary, are often' granitic and always tough. 

Slope-walls made of quarry stone are built as shown in 
Pigs. 8 and 9. The stones are split with wedges or plug 
and feathered, then roughly dressed with a hammer, and 
placed in the wall on edge, just as brick or stone block are 
placed in a street pavement. The longest dimension of the 
stone is laid parallel with the axis of the canal or river. 
In some of the earlier walls, huge slabs of stone were laid 
flatwise just as sidewalk flagging is laid, but such stones 
are apt to settle unevenly and tilt up so that a passing 
boat or moving ice will displace them entirely. Moreover 



230 HANDBOOK OF COm' DATA, 

it is practically impossible to bed very large stone proper- 
ly, since ramming has no effect. Experience, therefore, 
has shown the necessity of splitting up slabs into blocks 
readily laid and bedded by hand; and it costs no more in 
the end to build walls in this way, for the cost of handling 
with a derrick and cost of frequent moving of derrick more 
than offset the cost of splitting the stone. It is customary 
on the Erie Canal always to provide a lining of gravel 
(Fig. 8) back of the wall. This lining serves a twofold 
purpose: It makes it easy for the workman to bed jagged 
stone properly, and it further adds to the protection of 
the subsoil from wash. Waves beating through the joints 
in the slope-wall strike this gravel which is not easily dis- 
placed, and do not reach the subsoil with sufficient force 
to displace it. It is the writer's opinion that this gravel 
lining is one of the most important and necessary features 
of a well-made slope-wall. Crushed stone, of course, would 
serve equally well or better, but usually the cost is more 
than for gravel. There are places where broken stone costs 
less than gravel and in such places it should be used. 

On rivers or reservoirs, subject to wide fluctuation in 
water level, the gravel or ;stone lining for the paving is 
even more necessary; for there the surface rain water, 
flowing down over the face of the slope-wall, will cut 
rivulets beneath it unless proper lining is provided. Em- 
bankments are usually so designed as to prevent much rain 
water from flowing over the slope-wall face, as shown in 
Fig. 8, where the towpath is seen to have a slope away 
from the canal. In diking a river the same form of top 
slope is usually provided where a slope- wall is to be laid; 
but in proteccing a natural river bank it is often 
impossible entirely to prevent rain water from flow- 
ing over the face of the slope-wall. Ditches should be 
dug to divert the rain water, which is then carried in. a 
pipe culvert through to the river. Ditches, however, are 
apt to flll up with washed-in earth, so that in any event a 
substantial lining of gravel shculd be placed back of the 
slope-wall, in order to guard against erosion by rain, water. 
A thickness of gravel lining of from. 4 to 8 ins. will suffice, 
4 ins. ordinarily being enough. 



COST OF STONE MASONRY. 237 

Passing to the thickness of the stone slope-wall itself, 
we find a range of from 6 ins. to 24 ins. with 12 to 16 ins. 
most commonly used. The Chemung River, near Elmira, 
N. Y., is a stream about 600 ft. wide and 20 ft. deep in 
times of high water. At one place on this river a slope- 
wall 24 ins. thick was built by the State, and a few miles 
away another had been built 12 ins. thick, both of a shaley 
limestone. Both walls have served for years, except in 
places where the piling at the toe has been undermined. 
The 24-in. wall was evidently an extravagant design; and 
not justified by the conditions, particularly as the lighter 
wail had been in service some years before the construc- 
tion of the 24-in. wall was begun. Because a river is occa- 
sionally a raging torrent it does not follow that the float- 
ing debris or ice will displace the small stones of a well- 
laid slope-wall. As a matter of fact, each stone is held 
by the weight of stones above, even when laid on a 1% 
to 1 ,slope, and a stone is pried out of a slope-wall with 
great difficulty. The writer believes that ordinary brick 
laid dry as a slope-wall pavement will protect a river em- 
bankment perfectly, provided the subsoil does not become 
undermined. In slope-wall masonry, on river embank- 
ments subject to blows of ice and logs, a thickness of 8 
to 10 ins. seems an advisable minimum, for some erosion 
and settlement of the subsoil or lining must be provided 
for. On reservoirs or canals a less thickness may be used 
where blows from boats are not frequent. But as above 
stated 12 ins. is very often specified, and as will be seen 
later, it is not an extravagant depth. Having fixed upon 
the depth of stone to be used in the wall, the thickness 
(or rise) and length remain to be determined. A minimum 
thickness of 4 ins. is usually specified. As a matter of fact, 
except 'for appearance sake, thickness is not an important 
factor. An engineer who is fond of seeing coursed ma- 
sonry will often require that the islope-wall be laid in 
courses of a specified minimum and maximum thickness. 
It costs money to dress the stone to lay in such courses, 
but for appearance sake, near a highway, such expense 
may be justified. Ordinarily it is not justifiable. Slope- 
walls are built for protection, not for beauty. 



238 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

If any definite minimum thickness of coufrses is specified, 
it should be governed by the stratified thickness of stone 
in the nearest quarry. If the quarry is thick-bedded lime- 
stone, then it is safe to omit any minimum thickneiss re- 
quirement; for to split into thin slabs with plug and 
feathers is expensive, and the contractor will surely not 
split the stone thinner than the maximum thickness speci- 
fied. If the quarry stone is thin-bedded, as shaley lime- 
stone and some sandstones are, a minimum thickness of 

3 or 4 ins. may be named. A maximum thickness of 10 
or 12 ins. is a reasonable requirement. A minimum length 
of 12 ins. is often specified, and is not unreasonable, for 
slabs are readily broken with a hammer to almost any de- 
sired length. There is no objection to stones up to 24 ins. 
in length. 

Slope-wall paving is "laid to break joint," as shown in 
Fig. 9, and it is well so to lay it, because if the toe is 
washed out, this breaking of joint enables the wall above 
to span the space, and so prevents rapid crumbling away 
of the wall. However, specifications are often drawn with 
absurd refinement as to this bonding; the least admissible 
numiber of inches of bond is nam^ed, and altogether the 
wall is treated as if it were to be a bridge pier, or arch, or 
other necessarily strong structure. To require that the 
stones shall be laid so as to beak joint is a sufficient re- 
quirement for slope-wall work. 

We come now to the feature of the specifications that 
makes a wall cost little or much — the allowable maximum 
width of bed and end joints. Specifications sometimes 
name %-in. joints to the full depth of each stone. Such 
work as we shall see costs twice as much as under the 
more reasonable requirement of li^-in. joints, carried back 

4 ins. from the face beyond which the stone may fall away 
to a wedge shape. To call for joints of less than 1^ ins. 
is justifiable only where well coursed slope-walling is de- 
sired for appearance sake. Wall with li/^-in. maximum 
joints serves the purpose of protection from erosion, and 
any expense incurred in better dressing is merely **for 
looks." 

In laying a slope-wall, "frames" or "profiles" should be 



COST OF STONE MASON RT. 



239 



set about 20 or 25 ft. apart, as shown in Fig. 10. Stakes 
are driven as shown, and a 1 x 4-in. profile-stick of timber 
is nailed to the stake at the proper grade, as determined 
hy the Y-level. The workmen then stretch a string from 
the bottom of one frame to the bottom of the next one, and 
thus have a line to which they can accurately lay the face 
of the slope-wall. Never allow a workman to attempt to 
lay slope-wall without such frames and a cord to guide 
him; for without such guides he will surely lay a wall 
with humps and hollows. (See page 5 for hints on stint 
work on slope-walls.) Another point in practical laying is 
always to incline each stone lightly uphill. Do not try to 
set it exactly at right angles to the surface of the ground, 





Fig. 11. 

Improperly Laid 

Slope wall. 



IbeSf-ich-^ 



Face 



Fig. 12. Showing Proper and Im- 
proper Dressing of End Joints. 



Fig. 10. Profile Frames Used in 
Slope Wall Laying. 

for an endeavor to do this results in a wall like that in 
Fig. 11, where the stone are in steps. 

The stone are split with plug and feathers and hammers 
in the quarry, hauled by wagons and dumped at the top 
of the embankment, as in Fig. 10. Laborers then throw the 
stones down to the slope-wall masons, who roughly scabble 
and lay them, filling in the chinks back of the face with 
spalls and gravel lining. An intelligent laborer can soon 
learn to lay common slope-wall, but skilled slope-wall ma- 
sons, if available, usually lay a better -appearing wall at 
less cost. Sharp-pointed stones like A, Fig. 12, should or- 
dinarily not be allowed; but stones like B, that are roughly 
dressed, 3 to 4 ins. back of the face, and then fall away 
so as to leave a wide end joint as shown, are not objection- 
able, provided these joints are filled with spalls and gravel. 



240 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Before passing to a consideration of costs, a word should 
be given as to protecting the toe or foot of the wall. In 
canal work it is customary to lay a 12 x 12-in. toe-timber 
or stick, as shown in Fig. 10. Since timber continually sub- 
merged does not rot, and since frozen timber in the win- 
ter when canals are closed does not rot either, this design 
is not objectionable for canals. However, the writer 
questions the necessity of using a toe stick alt all under or- 
dinary conditions in canal work. In river work, a toe 
stick resting against piles driven 5 ft. c. to c, is often used. 
In some cases the toe stick is done away with entirely and 
a line of close-driven piles substituted, which is a very ex- 
pensive solution of the problem and not altogether satis- 
factory. Piling on the concave bank of a river seems to 
hasten rather than retard undermining. A brush mattress 
is a better toe protection under such conditions, and heavy 
rip-rap is still better where the 'brush is alternately wet 
and dry. 

The following are actual costs of work done by the writer: 
The quarry required very little stripping, and was located 
on a side hill, 2y2 miles from the work. The stone was a 
thin bedded limestone, rather shaley, and was barred and 
wedged out with the us€ of little or no powder. There was 
very little plug and feathering as the stone split readily 
under the hammer. Common labor was employed, the only 
skilled m.an being the foreman, who worked with the men. 

140 wagon loads of stone, each load measuring 2 cu. yds. 
corded upon the wagon, and 1.55 cu. yds. laid in the slope- 
wall, making a total of 220 cu. yds. in the wall, were quar- 
ried and loaded by five men (including the foreman) in 20 
working days of 10 hours each, or at the rate of 2.2 cu. 
yds. of si ope- wall quarried per man per day. Laborers re- 
ceived $1.50 a day and foreman $2.50,^ so the wages averaged 
$1.70, which, divided by 2.2, makes the cost nearly 80 cts. 
per cu. yd. for quarrying and loading the stone. Elaeh 
driver helped load and unload his wagon, and hauled 4 
to 5 loads a day. A team and driver ireceived 70 cts. a 
load for hauling (5 miles round trip) over a good hard 
gravel road with no upgrades; so the cost of hauling was 
about 45 cts. per cu. yd. of slope-wall, making a total of 



OOS'i OP m^O'NE MABONIIY. 241 

$1.25 for the stone delirared at the work. A auarry rental 
of 10 cts. per cu. yd. was paid for the stone. To estimate 
the cost of loading and hauling for other distances the fol- 
lowing observations were made: Two laborers working 
quite deliberately handed up the stone to the driver, who 
stacked them on his * 'stone rack" (3 x 11 ft), or wagon 
box without sides other than a strip of 4 x 4-in. timber. 
It required 15 mins. to load a wagon with 2 cu. yds. meas- 
ured on the wagon, or 1.55 cu. yds. in the slope-wall. The 
driver alone would unload his wagon at the dump in 7 
mins., by simply rolling the stone off. 

The team traveled at a speed of 2i^ miles an hour, or 
220 ft. a minute, at a walk, and generally trotted part of 
the way back to make up for lost time at both ends. With 
a short haul, or over soft roads trotting would have been 
out of the question; 'and over very soft earth roads with 
occasional steep pulls a load half as great as the above is 
the maximum. 

Oin another similar contract 750 cu. yds. of slope-wall were 
quarried at a cost of $1.10 per cu. yd., the stone being a 
"grit" or shaley limestone, quarried by laborers at $1.50 
per day of 10 hours. The haul was 1% miles from quarry 
to wall and 6 trips a day were made by each team, hauling 
1% cu. yds. each trip as measured in the wall, at a cost 
of 35 cts. per cu. yd. for hauling. This istone, therefore, 
cost $1.45 per cu. yd. delivered. 

In laying 750 cu. yds. of "second-class" slope-wall, 12 
ins. thick, joints 1% ins. as a maximum, stone allowed to 
fall away 4 ins. back of face, -not laid in courses, but an 
excellent wall in appearance and in reality, the cost was 
as follows: The first few days, using new hands, intelli- 
gent laborers, each man laid 2i^ cu. yds. at a cost of 60 cts. 
a cu. yd., wages being $1.50 per 10-hour day. Later these 
men readily averaged 3 cu. yds. yer day. Some skilled 
slope-wall layers were imported and received $2.50 per 10- 
hour day. These men readily laid 5 cu. yds. each day, one 
laborer to every four slope-wall layers acting as a helper 
to deliver stone. Thus 600 cu. yds. of slope-wall were laid 
in 130 layer-days and 35 helper-days, half of the layers be- 
ing skilled men, and half common laborers. There was 



242 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

no foreman in constant attendance, as each man's work 
between the frames was easily measured up, and his daily- 
progress thus known. A portion of the work was sublet 
at 50 cts. per cu. yd. to two of the skilled slope-wall masons 
who had each been averaging 5 cu. yds. a day. From that 
time on each averaged 714 cu. yds. of wall daily! Skilled 
men like these under subcontract will lay 10 or even 12 
cu. yds. of a somewhat rougher slope-wall in 10 hours. 
On another contract where the wall was 16 ins. thick, 4 
masons at $2.50 and 4 laborers at $1.50 averaged 60 cu. yds. 
of fair slope-wall per 10-hour day. Work was scarce, and 
one of the masons was the subcontractor himself, and re- 
ceived 30 cts. per cu. yd. Assumiing 50 cts. per cu. yd. as 
a fair average cost for laying good ''second-class" slope- 
wall and $1.25 to $1.50 for cost of stone delivered, we have 
a total cost of $1.75 to $2.00 per cu. yd. in place. 

The average contract price for slope-wall on the Erie 
Canal deepening in 1896-7 was $2.50 per cu. yd., wages be- 
ing as above given. 'Slope-wall laid in courses, with close 
joints the full depth of the wall, np course less than 6 
ins. thick — a sand-papered job — ^was let for $4.50 per cu. yd. 
under conditions where $2.50 was a fair price for good or- 
dinary slope-wall. The actual cost was not far below the 
contract price for stone plug and feathered to size cost 
delivered $2.50 per cu. yd., and laying cost $1.25 per cu. yd. 
Gravel lining in both cases was paid for separately, the 
contract price along the Erie Canal averaging 90 cts. per 
cu. yd. of lining in place. The actual cost of this lining 
is of course figured as for any earthwork, an allowance be- 
ing made for spreading it on the face of the embankment 
after dumping it. To spread it most expeditiously it will 
pay to make a wooden chute into v/hich the gravel is 
shoveled from the wagons, a shoveler helping the driver to 
unload. Two men will unload 1 cu. yd. in this way in 10 
minutes, if they work as they should. The driver then has 
a rest on his return trip, at the end of which it is well to 
provide an extra wagon, which has been loaded during his 
absence. It takes only 1% mins. to change the team from 
the empty to the loaded wagon. Since 1 to 1^/4 eu. yds. of 
gravel constitute a load, since teams travel 220 ft. per nun., 



COST OF STONE MASONRY. 243 

and since a laborer can load 18 cu. yds. of gravel in 10 
hrs., we have all the factors necessary to compute the 
cost of hauling and unloading. There is very little work 
in spreading the gravel where a chute is used, 2 to 5 cts. 
per cu. yd. covering this item. 

If good thin-bedded sandstone or limestone is not 
available, it may he necessary to plug and feather the 
stone to sizes specified, and this cost may be estimated by 
data on page 203. 

Cost of a Granite Slope-Wall. — The cost of a granite 
slope-wall greatly exceeds the cost of slope-walls of strati- 
fied rock such as are described in the preceding paragraphs, 
if any attempt is made to square the granite slope-wall 
stones, for rubble granite stones must be plug and feath- 
ered en all faces to square them up. Even where the speci- 
fications are lenient, if an attempt is made to secure a 
granite slope-wall with a smooth face, but without close 
joints, the cost of plugging off the faces of stone before 
laying, and the cost of reducing them to a size not greater 
than the thickness of the wall (12 to 18 ins.) is not a 
small item. If granite boulders, or granite rubble stones 
from a quarry, are to be used, first estimate roughly the 
average size of each stone, then estimate the number of 
plug-holes necessary to split it into slope-wall stones. Use 
the data on page 203 for estimating the cost of this plug 
and feather work. 

On one job of granite slope-wall work, 3 masons splitting 
field boulders with plugs, and 10 laborers laying a wall 
18 ins. thick, averaged 14 cu. yds. per day of 10 hrs. for 
$24, or $1.70 per cu; yd. for splitting and laying the stones. 
No attempt was made to secure close joints or to' lay the 
stone in courses. Stones were frequently laid flatwise and 
bedded in spawls; and spawls were used liberally between 
joints. Tlie masons were rapid workers, but the laborers 
were a slow lot of men. 

Cost of Laying: a Limestone Slope-Wall. — Mr. W. B. 

Fuller in Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.,Vol.43, 1900, p. 303, says: "The 
paving of the apper sides of the sedimentation basin (Al- 
bany, N. Y.) is of blue limestone blocks, 10 to 15 ins. deep. 



244 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

S to 20 ins. wide, and 15 to 36 ins. long. Two masons and 
one helper together would lay about 16 sq. yds. per day, 
and the labor cost of laying the stone and gravel, including 
the teaming of the material about 800 ft., was 72 cts. per 
sq. yd." 

The specifications called for a slope-wall 10 ins. thick 
laid on a gravel lining 24 ins. thick. 

Cost of Excavating Masonry. — The masonry abutments 
of an old bridge were removed to make way for a new 
arch bridge. A hand-power derrick was used, and the ma- 
terial was piled near the derrick. The cost of excavating 
this masonry was 50 cts. per cu. yd., wages being 15 cts. 
per hr. In another similar case the cost was 75 cts. per 
cu. yd. The average contract price for such work on the 
Erie Oanal, in 1896, was 80 cts. per cu. yd., wages being 
12y2 cts. per hr. 

Mr. C. R. Neher, M. Am. Soc. C. E., informs me that 
the cost of excavating 3,140 cu. yds. of old railway bridge 
piers, and depositing the material in the river bed, was 
38 cts. per cu. yd., not including the cost of scaffolding. 

Cost of Pointing Old Bridge Masonry. — Cleaning and 
pointing old masonry, using Alpha cement at $2.40 per 
bbl., masons wages being $2 and helpers $1.60 per day, cost 
as follows: 

Small jobs; no staging: Cts. per sq. ft. 

Cement 0.26 

Labor 0.74 

Total per sq. ft 1.00 

This is equivalent to 9 cts. per sq. yd. 

Large jobs; staging used: Cts. per sq. ft. 

Cement 0.27 

Labor 1.87 

Total per sq. ft 2.14 

This is equivalent to 19 cts. per sq. yd. 



COST OF STONE MASONRY, 245 

Cost of Lining Tunnels. — Drinker gives the following 
data on the lining of Carr's Tunnel (825 ft.) on the Penn- 
sylvania R. R. in 1868-1869. Brickwork: 609,000 brick in 
the arch (57o broken and lost); 10.44 bushels of 
neat cement (no sand used in the mortar) laid 1,000 bricks, 
the mortar forming 30% of the brick masonry; the 
arch was 25 ft. thick, 24%-ft. span and 9-ft rise: 

Cost per M. 

Bricks f. o. b $8.80 

Loss in handling 0.51 

Unloading and delivering 1.92 

Daying 5.84 

Cement 5.10 

Total $22.17 

Bricklayers received 40 cts. per hr.; helpers, llVz cts. 
per hr.; carpenters, 27i/^ cts. per hr.; laborers, 17 cts. 
per hr. 

Stonework: 1,730 perches (25 cu. ft.) of rough masonry 
for side walls, presumably sandstone; 187 perches of ring 
stone; 25 perches wasted in dressing. The bench walls 
were 4 ft. wide at the bottom, 3 ft. at the top and 13 ft. 
high: 

Cost per perch. 

Quarrying (1,730 perches) $4.80 

Cutting (1,730 perches) 4.36 

Hauling (1,942 perches) 1.06 

Handling and laying (1,917 perches) 2.80 

Cement, 1.65 bu. per perch (8 1-6% of the masonry) 0.81 

Total $13.83 

Stone cutters and masons received 35 cts. per hr.; quar- 
rymen, 17^^ cts.; laborers, 17 cts. The stone side walls 
were laid in 8 courses averaging 2 ft. thick each; hence 
there were 52,800 sq. ft. of beds cut; and estimating each 
stone 3 ft. long and dressed for iVz ft. back of the face 
on joints, there were 14,300 sq. ft. of joints; making a 
total of 67,100 sq. ft. of cutting which cost 11.2 cts. per 



246 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

sq. ft. This is said to have been too high a costj if the 
measurements were correct. 

Arch centering cost $1,400, to which was added $600 for 
moving the centering forward from time to time; mak- 
ing $2.40 per lin. ft. of tunnel, to which must be added $0.70 
per ft. for scaffolding. 

In Engineering News, Oct. 25, 1894, is given an abstract 
of a paper read before the Montana Society of 0. E/s, iby 
Mr. H. O. Relf, on the lining of the Mullan Tunnel on 
the Northern Pacific Ry. with masonry to replace tim'ber. 
The tunnel is 3,850 ft. long, 20 miles west of Helena. Palls 
of rock and fires in the tunnel had caused numerous de- 
lays. The original timbering consisted of sets 4 ft. c. to c. 
of 12 X 12-in. timbers, with 4-inv lagging: The size was 
16 X 20 ft. in the clear. 

Concrete side walls (30-in,) and four-ring brick arch 
were built in place of the old timbering. A 7-ft. section 
was first prepared by removing one post and supporting 
the arch by struts. Two temporary posts were set up and 
fastened by hook bolts; and a lagging was placed back 
of them to make forms to hold the concrete. Several of 
these 7-ft. sections were prepared at a time, each two be- 
ing separated by a 5-ft. section of the old timbering. The 
mortar car delivered Portland cement mortar (1 to 8) 
through a chute, making an 8-in. layer of mortar into ^which 
broken stone was shoveled until all the mortar was taken 
up by the stone voids. In 10 to 14 days the walls were 
hard enough to support the arches which were then al- 
lowed to rest on the walls, and the posts of the remaining 
5-ft. sections were removed, and concrete placed as be- 
fore. Atbout 4 parts of mortar were used to 5 parts of 
broken stone, which is a very rich concrete. The average 
progress per working day was 30 ft. of side wall, or 45 
cu. yds.; and the average cost, including removal of old 
timber, train service, engineering, superintendence and in- 
terest on plant, was $8 per cu. yd. of concrete wall. From 
3 to 9 ft. of brick arch was put in at a time, depending 
upon the nature of the ground. To remove the old timber 
arch one of the segments was partly sawed through, and 
a small charge of dynamite exploded in it; the debris 



COBT OF STONE MASONRY, 247 

being caught on a platform car, from which it was re- 
moved to another car and conveyed away. The center was 
then placed, and the cement car used to mix mortar on. 
Brick were 2% x 4% x 9 ins., four ringings, making a 20-in. 
arch and giving 1.62 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of tunnel. The 
bricks were laid in rowlock bond. Two gangs of 3 brick- 
layers and 6 helpers each, laid 12 lin. ft., or 19.4 cu. yds., 
of brick arch per day. The brick work cost $17 per cu. yd., 
making the total cost of tunnel lining $50 per lin. ft. The 
work was still in progress at the time of writing. 



SEICTION VL 



COST OiF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION OF ALL KINDS. 

Definitions.— Concrete is an artificial stone made by mix- 
ing cement mortar with gravel or broken stone. The pro- 
portions of cement, sand and stone are generally expressed 
in parts by measure (occasionally by weight). A 1:2:5 
(one, two, five) concrete means 1 part cement to 2 parts 
sand to 5 parts stone. A 1:3:6 concrete is made of 1 part 
cement, 3 parts sand and 6 parts stone (or gravel). When 
both stone and gravel are used, the concrete may be desig- 
nated thus, 1:3:2:4, which means 1 part cement, 3 parts 
sand, 2 parts gravel and 4 parts stone. 

Dry Concrete is a term used to designate a mixture con- 
taining so small a percentage of water that very hard ram- 
ming is required to flush the water to the surface. 

Wet Concrete contains so much water as to require little 
or no ramming. **Sloppy concrete" is concrete so wet that 
It will run down a slightly inclined trough. 

Natural cement is a term applied to the cheap brands of 
hydraulic cement made by calcining and grinding a limestone 
containing naturally enough clayey matter to make a ce- 
ment that will harden under water. A few years ago it 
was common practice to give to all natural cements the 
name Rosendale cement, for it was at Rosendale, N. Y., 
that the first natural cement was made in this country. 

Portland cement is a term applied to a cement made by 
calcining and grinding a mixture of about 1 part clay to 
4 parts limestone, the temperature being so high that the 
clay combines chemically with the lime, leaving little or no 
quicklime. 

Slag cement is a cement made by mixing powdered slaked 
lime and pulverized blast-furnace slag. It will harden 
under water. 

Ballast is a term used to designate the broken stone or 



CO:^ CRETE CONSTRUCTION, 249 

gravel used in making concrete. Tlie term aggregate is often 
used instead of ballast. English writers use the word 
shingle instead of gravel. The terms crushed stone and hro- 
ken stone are used indiscriminately to designate stone that 
has been broken by a rock crusher. Screenings applies to 
the product of the crusher that passes through the smallest 
screen used. The size of the smallest hole in the screen 
varies from %-in. to %-in., so the word screenings has no 
definite meaning, although it can usually be taken to apply 
to all stone under i^-in. in diameter. 

Crusher run means all the crushed stone just as it comes 
from the crusher, without separation into sizes, and general- 
ly it includes the product that would be termed screenings if 
it were screened out. 

Matrix is a term sometimes used instead of mortar, but 
there is no good reason for using the term at all. 

A hatch of concrete is the amount mixed at one time either 
by a gang of men or by a machine mixer. In hand mixing, 
ordinarily one barrel of cement and the proper proportions 
of sand and stone make a batch. 

Forms are the molds (usually of lumber) that hold the 
concrete in shape until it has set or haraened. 

Concrete that is mixed dry is spread in layers 6 or 8 ins. 
thick and rammed or tamped until the water flushes to the 
surface. Concrete that is mixed wet is spaded with a spade- 
like tool that is worked upon and down in the concrete to 
remove all air bubbles particularly near the forms or near 
any steel used to reinforce the concrete. 

Reinforced concrete is concrete in which are embedded 
bars or wires of steel or iron. It is often called concrete-steel, 
especially by workmen and contractors. 

RubUe concrete is a term, applied to concrete in which 
large rubble stones, or plums, are embedded. Stones from 
the size of a man's head to the size of a barrel are thus 
used. When larger stones are used, and the concrete be- 
comes simply a coarse grained mortar between them, prob- 
ably the term cyclopean masonry is more correct than rubble 
concrete; still there is no distinct dividing line. 

Voids is a term applied to the spaces between the grains 
of sand, or to the spaces between the fragments of broken 
stone. The voids are expressed in a percentage of the total 
volume of the loose material. 



250 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Theory of tlie Quantity of Cement in Blortar and 
Concrete. — All sand contains a large percentage of voids. 
In 1 cu. ft. of loose sand there are 0.3 to 0.5 cu. ft. of voids; 
that is, 30% to 50% of the sand is voids. In making mortar 
the cement is mixed with the sand, and the flour-like 
grains of the cement fit in between the grains of the sand, 
occupying a part or all of the voids in the sand. Accord- 
ing to the old theory (as given in Trautwine's Handbook 
and elsewhere), the amount of cement required to make a 
given mortar is calculated as follows: Suppose the mortar 
is to be 1 cu. ft. of cement to 2 cu. ft. of sand (a 1 to 2 
mortar); and suppose the sand contains 35% voids, then 2 
cu. ft. of sand would contain 2 x 0.35; or 0.7 cu. ft. voids. 
Now, the 1 cu. ft. of cement would fill this 0.7 cu. ft. of 
voids in the sand and leave an excess of 1 — 0.7, or 0.3 cu. 
ft. of cement; hence, the resulting mortar would be 2 cu. 
ft. of sand + 0.3 cu. ft. of cement (the excess left over after 
filling the voids in the sand), thus making 2.3 cu. ft. of mor- 
tar from the mixture of 1 cu. ft. of cement with 2 cu. ft. of 
sand. As above stated, this simple theory was commonly 
given by all writers (without exception, so far as I know), 
although many contractors and some engineers must have 
learned by experience that the theory is incorrect. In 
Engineering News, Dec. 5, 1901, I called public attention 
to the errors of the theory. In the same article a theory 
that gives much closer approximations to the truth was 
outlined. 

Since a correct estimate of the number of iDarrels of ce- 
ment per cubic yard of mortar or concrete, is very important, 
and since it is not always possible to make actual mixtures 
before bidding, it seems wise to give space to a discussion 
of the theory that I have offered. 

When loose sand is mixed with water, its volume or bulk 
is increased; subsequent jarring will decrease its volume, 
but still leave a net gain of about 10%; that is, 1 cu. ft. of 
dry sand becomes about 1.1 cu. ft. of damp sand. Not only 
does this increase in the volume of the sand occur, but, in- 
stead of increasing the voids that can be filled with cement, 
there is an absolute loss in the volume of available voids. 
This is due to the space occupied by the water necessary to 
bring the sand to the consistency of mortar; furthermore, 
there is seldom a perfect mixture of the sand and cement 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 251 

in praotice, thus reducing the available voids. It is safe to 
call this reduction in available voids about 10%. 

When loose, dry Portland cement is wetted, it shrinks 
about 15% in volume, behaving differently from the sand, 
but it never shrinks back to quite as small a volume as it 
9ccupies when packed tightly in a barrel. Since barrels of 
different brands vary widely in size, the careful engineer or 
contractor will test any brand he intends using in larg© 
quantities, in order to ascertain exactly how much cement 
paste can be made. He will find a range of from 3.2 cu. ft. 
to 3.8 cu. ft. per bbl. of Portland cement. Obviously the 
larger barrel may be cheaper though its price is higher. 
Specifications often state the number of cubic feet that will 
be allowed per barrel in mixing the concrete ingredients, 
so that any rule or formula to be of practical value must 
contain a factor to allow for the specified size of the barrel, 
and another factor to allow for the actual number of cubic 
feet of paste that a barrel will yield — the two being usually 
quite different. 

The deduction of a rational, practical formula for com- 
puting the quantity of cement required for a given mixture 
will now be given, based upon the facts above outlined. 

Let p = number of cu. ft. cement paste per bbl., as deter- 
mined by actual test. 

n == number of cu. ft. of cement per bbl., as specified 
in the specifications. 

s = parts of sand (by volume) to one part of cement, 
as specified. 

g = parts of gravel or broken stone (by volume) to 
one part of cement, as specified. 

V = percentage of voids in the dry sand, as deter- 
mined by test. 

y = percentage of voids in the gravel or stone, as 
determined by test. 

Then, in a mortar of 1 part cement to s parts sand, we 
have: ^ 

ns = cu. ft. of dry sand to 1 bbl. cement. 
nsv=" " " voids in the dry sand. 
0.9nsv= " " ** available voids in the wet sand. 
' 1.1 ns== " " ** wet sand. 
p — 0r9nsv=^ ** " " cement paste in excess of the voids. 



252 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Therefore: 
1.1 n s -f ( p — 0.9 n s v) = cu. ft. of mortar per bbl. 
Therefore: 

27 27 

N = = 



1.1 n s + (p — 0.9 n s v) p + n s (1.1 ■— 0.9 v) 

N being the nuniber of barrels of cement per cu. yd. of 
mortar. 

When the mortar is made so lean that there is not 
enough cement paste to fill the voids in the sand, the for- 
mula becomes 

27 

N = 

1.1 n & 

A similar line of reasoning will give us a rational for- 
mula for determining the quantity of cement in concrete; 
but there is one point of difference between sand and gravel 
(or broken stone), namely, that the gravel does not swell 
materially in volume when mixed with water. However, a 
certain amount of water is required to wet the surface of the 
pebbles, and this water reduces the available voids, that is, 
the voids that can be filled by the mortar. With this in 
mind, the following deduction is clear, using the nomen- 
clature and symbols above given: 

ng = cu. ft. of dry gravel (or stone), 
ng V = " " " voids in dry gravel. 
0.9 ng V = " ** " "available voids" in the w^t gravel, 
p + n s (1.1 — 0.9 v) — 0.9 ng V = excess of mortar aver the 

available voids in the wet gravel. 
ng + p + n s (1.1 — 0.9 v) — 0.9 ng V = cu. ft. of concrete 
from 1 bbl. cement. 

27 

N = 

p + ns(l.l — 0.9v) rfng(l — 0.9V) 

N being the number of barrels of cement required to 
make 1 cu. yd. of concrete. 

This formula is rational and perfectly general. Other 
experimenters may find it desirable to use constants slightly 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 



253 



different from the 1.1 and the 0.9, for fine sands swell more 
than coarse sands, and hold more water. 

The reader must bear in mind that when the voids in the 
sand exceed the cement paste, and when the available voids 
in the gravel (or stone) exceed the mortar, the formula be- 
comes: 

27 

N = 

ng 

These formulas give the amounts of cement in mortars 
and concretes compacted in place. Tables V. to VIII. are 
based upon the foregoing theory, and will be found to 
check satisfactorily with actual tests. 

TABLE V. 
Barrels of Portland Cement per Cubic Yard of Mortar. 

(Voids in sand being 35%, and 1 bbl. cement yielding 3.65 cu. ft. of 
cement paste.) 



Proportion of Cement to sand. 


1 tol 


Itoll 


lto2 


lto2^ 


1 to8 


lto4 


Barrel specified to be 3.6 cu. ft 

- 3.8 •' 

'• 4.0 
'* 4.4 


Bbls. 
4.22 
4.09 
4.00 
3.81 


Bbls. 
3.49 
3.33 
3.24 
3.07 


Bbls. 
2.97 
2.81 
2.73 
2.57 


Bbls. 
2.57 
2.45 
2.36 
2.27 


Bbls. 
2.28 
2.16 
2.08 
2.00 


Bbls. 
1.76 
1.62 
1.54 
1.40 


Cu. yds. sand per cu. yd. mortar 


0.6 


0.7 


0.8 


0.9 


1.0 


1.0 



TABLE VI. 

Barrels of Portland Cement per Cubic Yard of Mortar. 

(Voids in sand being 45%, and 1 bbl. cement yielding 3.4 cu. ft. of 
cement paste.) 



Proportion of Cement to Sand. 


1 tol 


Itol^ 


lto2 


lto2^ 


lto3 


lto4 


Barrel specified to be 3.5 cu. ft 

3.8 - 

4.0 
" ** 4.4 


Bbls. 
4.62 
4.32 
4.19 
3.94 


Bbls. 
3.80 
3.61 
3.46 
3.34 


Bbls. 
3.25 
3.10 
8.00 
2.90 


Bbls. 
2.84 
2.72 
2.64 
2.57 


Bbls. 
2.35 
2.16 
2.05 
1.86 


Bbls. 
1.76 
1.62 
1.54 
1.40 


Cu. yds. sand per cu. yd. mortar 


0.6 


0.8 


0.9 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 



In using these tables remember that the proportion of ce- 
ment to sand is by volume, and not by weight. If the spec- 



254 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

i'fications state that a barrel of cement shall be considered 
to hold 4 cu. ft., for example, and that the mortar shall be 1 
part cement to 2 parts sand, then 1 barrel of cement is 
mixed with 8 cu. ft. of sand, regardless of what is the 
actual size of the barrel, and regardless of how much 
cement paste can be made with a barrel of cement. If the 
specifications fail to state what the size of a barrel will be, 
then the contractor is left to guess. 

If the specifications call for proportions by weight, as- 
sume a Portland barrel to contain 380 lbs. of cement, and 
test the actual weight of a cubic foot of the sand to be 
used. Sand varies extremely in weight, due both to the 
variation in the per cent of voids, and to the variation in 
the kind of minerals of which the sand is composed. A 
quartz sand having 35% voids weighs 107 lbs. per cu. ft.; 
but a quartz sand having 45% voids weighs only 91 lbs. per 
cu. ft. If the weight of the sand must be guessed at, as- 
sume 100 lbs. per cu. ft. If the specifications require a mix- 
ture of 1 cement to 2 of sand by weight, we will have 380 
lbs. (or 1 bbl.) of cement mixed with 2 x 380, or 760 lbs. of 
sand; and if the sand weighs 90 lbs. per cu. ft, we shall 
have 760 -^ 90, or 8.44 cu. ft. of sand to every barrel of 
cement. In order to use the tables above given, we may 
specify our own size of barrel; let us say 4 cu. ft.; then 
8.44 -^ 4 gives 2.11 parts of sand by volume to 1 part of 
cement. Without material error we may call this a 1 to 2 
mortar, and use the tables, remembering that our barrel 
is now "specified to be" 4 cu. ft. If we have a brand of 
cement that yields 3.4 cu. ft. of paste per bbl., and sand 
having 45% voids, we find that approximately 3 bbls. of 
cement per cu. yd. of mortar will be required. 

It should be evident from the foregoing discussions that 
no table can be made, and no rule can be formulated that 
will yield accurate results unless the brand of cement is 
tested and the percentage of voids in the sand determined. 
This being so the sensible plan is to use the tables merely 
as a rough guide, and, where the quantity of cement to^ be 
used is very large, to make a few batches of mortar using 
the available brands of cement and sand in the proportions 
specified. Ten dollars spent in this way may save a thou- 
sand, even on a comparatively small job, by showing what 
cement and sand to select. 



CONCRETE CONSTEUCTION, 



255 



TABLE VII.* 

Ingredients in 1 Cubic Yard of Concrete, 

(Sand voids, 40%; stone voids, 45%; Portland cement barrel yielding 
3.65 cu. ft. paste. Barrel specified to be 3.8 cu. ft.) 



Proportions by Yolume. 



Bbls. cement per cu. yd. concrete 

Cu. yds. sand " 

Cu. yds. stone " *' 



Proportions by Volume. 



1:2:4 



1.46 
0.41 

0.82 



1:3:5 



1:2:5 



1.80 
0.36 
0.90 



1:3:6 



1:2:6 



1.18 
0.33 
1.00 



1:3:7 



1:2^:5 



1.13 

0.40 
0.80 



1:4:7 



1:2>^:6 



1.00 
0.35 
0.84 



1:4:8 



1:8:4 



1.25 
0.53 
0.71 

1:4:9 



Bbls. cement per cu. yd. concrete 

Cu. yds. sand " 

Cu. yds. stone *' " 



1.13 
0.48 
0.80 



1.05 
0.44 
0.88 



0.96 
0.40 
0.93 



0.82 
0.46 
0.80 



0.77 
0.43 
0.86 



0.73 
0.41 
0.92 



* This table Is to be used where cement Is measured packed In the 
barrel, for the ordinary barrel holds 3.8 cu. ft. 

It will be seen lliat the above table can be condensed into 
the following rule: Add together the number of parts and 
divide this sum into ten, the quotient will be approximately 
the number of barrels of cement per cubic yard. Thus for 
a 1:2:5 concrete, the sum of the parts is 1 + 2 + 5, which 
is 8; then 10 -- 8 is 1.25 bbls., which is approximately 
equal to the 1.30 bbls. given in the table. Neither this 
rule nor this table is applicable if a different size of ce- 
ment barrel is specified, or if the voids in the sand or stone 



TABLE VIII. 
Ingredients in 1 Cubic Yard of Concrete. 

(Sand voids, 40%; stone voids, 45%; Portland cement barrel yielding 
3.65 cu. ft. of paste. Barrel specified to be 4.4 cu. ft.) 



Proportions by Volume. 


1:2:4 


1:2:5 


1:2:6 


1:2K:5 


1:2^:6 


1:3:4 


Bbls. cement per cu. yd. concrete 

Cu. yds. sand 

Cu. yds. stone " " 


1.30 
0.42 
0.84 


1.16 
0.38 
0.95 


1.00 
0.33 
1.00 


1.07 
0.44 
0.88 


0.96 
0.40 
0.95 


1.08 
0.53 
0.71 


Proportions by Volume. 


1:3:5 


1:3:6 


1:3:7 


1:4:7 


1:4:8 


1:4:9 


Bbls. cement per cu. yd. concrete 

Cu. yds. sand 

Cu. yds. stone '• " 


0.96 
0.47 
0.78 


0.90 
0.44 
0.88 


0.82 
0.40 
0.93 


0.75 
0.49 
0.86 


0.68 
0.44 
0.88 


0.64 
0.42 
0.95 



Note.— This table Is to be used when the cement Is measured loose, 
after dumping It Into a box, for under such conditions a barrel of cement 
yields 4.4. cu. ft. of loose cement. 



256 



BANDBOOK OF OO^T DATA. 



differ materially from 40% and 45% respectively. Ther^ are 
such inumerable combinations of varying voids, and vary- 
ing sizes of barrel, that the author does not deem it worth 
while to give other tables. 

Cement per Cubic Yard of Mortar By Test. 

According to tests by Sabin, by Fuller (in Taylor and Thompson) and by 
H. P. Boardman, the following results were obtained : 



Authority, 


Neat. 


Itol 


1 to2 


Ito 8 


1 to4 


1 to5 


1 to6 


Ito 7 


Ito 8 


Sabin 


Bbls. 
7.40 
8.02 
7.40 


Bbls. 
4.17 
4.68 
4.50 


Bbls. 
2.84 
3.09 
3.18 


Bbls. 
2.06 
2.30 
2.35 


Bbls. 
1.62 
1.80 


Bbls. 
1.33 

1.48 


Bbls. 
1.14 
1.2S 


Bbls. 

i.ii 


Bbls. 


W. G. Fuller 

H. P. Boardman.. 


1.00 



The proportions were by barrels of cement to barrels of 
sand, and Sabin called a 380-lb. barrel 3.65 cu. ft, whereas 
Fuller called a 380-lb. barrel 3.80 cu. ft.; and Boardman 
called a 380-lb. barrel 3.5 cu. ft. Sabin used a sand having 
38% voids; Fuller used a sand having 45% voids; and Board- 
man used a sand having 38% voids. It will be seen that the 
cement used by Sabin yielded 3.65 cu. ft. of cement paste 
per bbl. (i. e. 27 -f- 7.4), whereas the (Atlas) cement used by 
Fuller yielded 3.4 cu. ft. of cement paste per bbl. Sabin 
found that a barrel of cement measured 4.37 cu. ft. when 
dumped and measured loose. 

Mr. Boardman states a barrel (380 lbs., net) of Lehigh 
Portland cement yields 3.65 cu. ft. of cement paste; and 
that a barrel (265 lbs., net) of Lrouisville natural cement 
yields 3.0 cu. ft. of cement paste. 

Mr. J. J. R. Croes, M. Am. Soc. C. E., states that 1 bbl. 
of Rosendale cement and 2 bbls. of sand (8 cu. ft.) make 
9.7 cu. ft. of mortar, the extreme variations from this aver- 
age being 7%. 

Tlie Size and Weight of Barrels of Cement. — A barrel 
Of Portland cement contains 380 lbs. of cement, and the 
barrel itself weighs 20 lbs. more. The size of the barrel 
varies considerably, due to the difference in weight per 
struck bushel, and to the difference in compressing the 
cement in the barrel. A light burned Portland cement 
weighs 100 lbs. per struck bushel; a heavy burned cement 
weighs 118 to 125 lbs. per struck bushel. The number of 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 



257 



cubic feet of packed Portland cement in a barrel ranges 
from 3 to 3%. English Portland cement barrels contain 
3% to 3% cu. ft. packed. There are usually four bags (cloth 
sacks) of cement to the barrel, and each bag itself weighs 
11/2 lbs. 

The natural cements are lighter than Portland. The West- 
ern cements, such as Louisville, Akron and Utica weigh 265 
lbs. per bbl., and the barrel weighs 15 lbs. more. A barrel 
of Louisville cement = 3% cu. ft. packed. The Rosendale 
cements of New York and Pennsylvania weigh 300 lbs. per 
bbl. and the barrel weighs 20 lbs. more. There are usually 
three bags of natural cement to the barrel. 

When cement is ordered in cloth sacks, there is a charge 
made of 10 cts. per sack, but on return of the sacks a credit 
of 8 to 10 cts. per sack is allowed. Cement ordered in 
wooden barrels costs 10 cts. more per bbl. than in bulk. 
Cement ordered in paper bags costs 5 cts. more per bbl. than 
in bulk. Hence it is that nearly all cement used in large 
quantities is ordered in cloth sacks which are returned. 

When a barrel of cement is dumped out and shoveled into 
a box it measures much more than when packed in the 
barrel, ordinarily from 20 to 30% more. I have measured 
a number of barrels of English Portland cement, which is 
still much used on the Pacific Coast of America, and find 
that a barrel having a capacity of 3% cu. ft. between heads 
will yield 4.5 cu. ft. of cement measured dry and loose in a 
box. I have found brands of American Portland cement 
that yield 4.65 cu. ft. when measured loose in a box. The 
variation is considerable, as is seen in the following table, 
compiled from data given by Mr. Howard Carson, M. Am. 
Soc. C. E.: 

(1) (2) (3) 

Brand Actual Volume 

of Capacity contents when Increase 

Portland of of packed dumped In 

cement. bbli bbl. loose. bulk. 

Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. 

Giant 3.5 3.35 4.17 25% 

Atlas 3.45 8.21 3.75 18% 

Baylor's 3.25 3.15 4.05 30^ 

Alsen (German) 3.22 3.16 4.19 33°^ 

Dyckerhoff (German).. 3.12 3.03 4.00 33% 

Some engineers require the contractor to measure the 
sand and stone in the same sized barrel that the cement 



258 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

comes in; then 1 part of sand or stone usually means 3% 
cu. ft. Other engineers permit both heads of the barrel to 
be knocked out, for convenience in measuring the sand and 
stone; then a barrel means about 3j4 ^^- ft. Still other engi- 
neers permit the contractor to measure his cement in a box, 
loose; then a barrel usually means from 4 to 4.5 cu. ft. Since 
most of the cement now used is shipped in bags and since 
four bags of Portland cement make a barrel, it is the cus- 
tom among many engineers to call a bag 1 cu. ft, even 
though it may yield a little more cement. Still other en- 
gineers prefer to specify that a Portland barrel shall be 
called 3.8 cu. ft, which is equivalent to 100 lbs. of cement 
per cu. ft. 

It is desirable that engineers and architects adopt some 
uniform practice in this matter, for now a contractor is 
often unable to estimate the quantity of cement required 
for any specified mixture because the size of the barrel is 
not specified. 

There have been advocates of proportioning parts by 
weight, but, aside from the fact that it is seldom conven- 
ient to weigh the ingredients of every batch, there is no 
gain in such a departure from long standing precedent. 
Sand and gravel and stone are by no means constant in 
specific gravity, as advocates of weighing seem to suppose. 

Effect of Moisture on Voids in Sand. — Few engineers 
and fewer contractors realize how greatly the volume of 
sand is affected by the presence of varying percentages of 
moisture in the sand. A dry, loose sand that has 45% voids 
if mixed with 5% (by weight) of water will swell (unless 
tamped) to such an extent that its voids may be 57%. The 
same sand, if saturated with more water until it becomes a 
thin paste, may show only 37%% voids after the sand has 
settled. The following tests by Feret show the effect that 
water has upon sand: 

Two kinds of sand were used, a very fine sand and a 
coarse sand. They were measured in a box that held 2 cu. 
ft, and was 8 ins. deep, the sand being shoveled into the 
box, but not tamped or shaken. After measuring and 
weighing the dry sand, 0.5% (by weight) of water was 
added, the sand was mixed and shoveled into the box again 
and weighed. This was repeated with varying percentages 
of water, up to 10%, with the following results: 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 259 

Per cent, of water In 

sand 0% 0.5% 1% 2% 8% 5% 10% 

Weight per cu. yd. of ^^s. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 

fine sand and water 3.457 2.206 2,085 2.044 2,037 2,035 2,133' 
Weight per cu. yd. of 

coarse sand & water 2,551 2,466 2,380 2,122 2,058 2,070 2,200 

It will be noted that the weight of mixed sand and water 
is given; but, to ascertain the exact weight of dry sand in 
the mixture, divide the weight given in the table by 100 %i 
plus the given tabular % ; thus, the weight of dry fine sand 
mixed with 5% of water is 2,035 -^ 1.05 = 1,938 lbs. per cu. 
yd. It will also be noted that when the water exceeds 3 to 
5%, the weight of the mixture increases, showing that a 
larger percentage of water compacts the sand. The voids 
in the dry fine sand were 45%, and in the sa.nd with 5% 
moisture they were 56.7%. 

It is well known that pouring water onto loose, dry sand 
compacts it. By mixing fine sand and water to a thin paste, 
pouring it into a pail and allowing it to settle, it was 
found that the sand occupied 11% less space than when 
measured dry in a box. The voids in fine sand, having a 
specific gravity of 2.65, were determined by measurements 
in a quart measure, and found to be as follows: 

Voids. 

Sand, not packed 44%% 

shaken to refusal 35 % 

" saturated with water 37^/^% 

Mr. H. P. Boardman made some experiments with Chi- 
cago sand having 34 to 40% voids when dry, by adding water 
to the sand. The results were as follows: 

0/ a/ 0/ 0/ 0/ 

/o /o /o /t> /o 

Water added, % by weight 2 4 6 8 10 

Resulting increase in volume 17.6 22 19.5 16.6 15.6 

However, a very moderate amount of shaking would re- 
duce this increase in volume by % to %. 

Effect of Size of Sand Grains on Voids. — If in any 

given volume of sand all the grains were of the same shape 
and of uniform size, the percentage of voids would be the 
same, regardless of the size of the grains. This is equiva- 
lent to saying that the finest birdshot has the same percent- 
age of voids as the coarsest buckshot. Natural sand grains, 



260 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

unless they have "been sorted by screening, are apt to vary 
greatly in size, large and small being intermixed. It is 
this that causes such wide discrepancies in published data 
as to the percentage of voids in dry bank sands. We may 
divide sand into three sizes, for convenience. The largest 
size (L) being sand that will pass a sieve of 5 meshes per 
lineal inch, but will not pass a sieve of 15 meshes per lineal 
inch; the medium size (M) being sand that will pass a 15 
mesh sieve, but will not pass a sieve of 50 meshes per lineal 
inch; and the fine size (F) being sand that will pass a 50- 
mesh sieve. If we mix varying proportions of the large, 
medium and fine (L, M and F), we find that we get the 
densest mixture, with the least voids, when we have a L6, 
MO. F4 mixture, that is, 6 parts large size, no parts medium, 
and 4 parts fine size. With a dry sand whose grains have a 
specific gravity of 2.65, if we weigh a cubic yard of either the 
fine, or the medium, or the large size, we find a weight of 
2,190 lbs. per cu. yd., which is equivalent to 51% voids. If 
we mix the three different sizes in varying proportions, we 
find, as above stated, that an L6, MO, F4 mixture is densest, 
and it weighs 2,840 lbs. per cu. yd. shoveled into a box dry. 
This is equivalent to 36% voids. We can get a denser mix- 
ture, with a lower percentage of voids, if we mix about equal 
parts of sand and clean gravel. It will be noted that the 
common statement that the densest mixture is obtained by a 
mixture of gradually increasing sizes of grains is erroneous. 
There must be enough difference in the sizes of grains to 
provide voids so large that the smaller grains will enter 
them and not wedge the larger grains apart. 

The shape of the grains has a very pronounced effect upon 
the percentage of voids, rounded grains having less voids 
than angular grains. Using sand having a granulometric 
composition of L5, M3, F2, measured in a quart measure, the 
following results were obtained by Feret: 

, ^Voids. 1 

Unshaken Shaken. 

Natural sand, rounded grains 35.9% 25.6% 

Crushed quartzite, angular grains 42.1 27.4 

Crushed shells, fiat grains 44.3 31.8 

Residue of quartzite, fiat grains 47.5 34.6 

The measure was shaken until no further settlement 
could be produced. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 



261 



Mr. William B. Fuller made the following tests: A dry- 
sand, having 34% voids shrank 9.6% in volume upon thor- 
ough tamping, until it had 27% voids. The same sand 
moistened with 6% water, and loose, had 44% voids, which 
was reduced to 31% by ramming. The same sand saturated 
with water had 33% voids, and by thorough ramming its 
volume was reduced 8^%, until the sand had only 26%% 
voids. 



Held by a Sieve 

No. 10 

No. 20 

No. 30 

No. 40..... 

No. 50 

No. 100 

No.200 



TABLE IX.- 


-Sizes of Sand Grains 






A 


B 


C 


E 


35.3% 








32.1 


1*2.8% 


4.2% 


11% 


14.6 


49.0 


12.5 
44.4 


14 


9.6 


29.3 


.... 


53 


4.9 


5.7 






2.0 


2.3 


.... 





Voids 33% 39% 41.7% 31% 

Note.— A la a " fine gravel " (containing 8% clay) used at Philadelphia. 
B, Delaware River sand. C, St. Mary's River sand. D, Green River, Ky., 
sand, "clean and sharp." 



TABLE X.— Voids in Sand. 



Locality 

Ohio River 

Sandusky, O 

Franklin Co., O 

Sandusky Bay, O. . . . 

St. Louis, Mo 

Sault Ste. Marie 

Chicago, 111 

Philadelphia, Pa 

Mass. Coast 

Boston, Mass 

Cow Bay, L. I 

Little Falls, N. J.... 
Canton, 111 



Authority 
W. H. Hall 
C. E. Sherman 
C. E. Sherman 
S. B. Newberry 
H. H. Henby 
H. von Schon 
H. P.Boardman 



Geo A. Kimball 
Myron S. Talk 
W. B. Fuller 
G. W. Chandler 



Voids 
31% 

40% 

40% 

32.3% 

34.3% 

41.7% 

34 to 40% 

39% 
81 to 34% 

33% 
4.0%% 
45.6% 

30% 



Remarks 

Washed 

Lake 

Bank 

Miss. River 
River 

Del. River 

Clean 

Clean 



Voids in Broken Stone and GraveL — The percentage 
of voids in loose, broken stone depends upon the character of 
the stone, upon whether it is broken by hand or in a 
crusher (probably also on the kind of crusher), and upon 
whether it is screened into different sizes, or the run of the 
crusher is taken. 

Pure quartz weighs 165 lbs. per cu. ft., hence broken 
quartz having 40% voids weighs 165 x 60%, or 99 lbs. per cu. 
ft. Few gravels are entirely quartz, and many contain stone 
having a greater specific gravity like some traps, or a less 
specific gravity like some shales and sandstones, 



262 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



TABLE XI. 
Specific Gravity of Stone. 

(Condensed from Merrill's " Stones for Building.") 



Trap, Boston, Mass 2.78 

" Duluth, Minn ..... 2.8 to 3.0 

•' Jersey City, N. J 3.03 

Staten Island, N.Y...... 2.86 

Gneiss, Madison Ave., N.Y 2.92 

Granite.New London, Conn.... 2.66 

Greenwich, Conn 2.84 

" Vinalhaven, Me 2.66 

" Quincy, Mass 2.66 

Barre, Vt 2.65 



Limestone, Joilet, 111 2.56 

Quincy, 111. .2.51 to 2.57 
(oolitic) Bedford, 

Ind 2.25to2.45 

Marquette, Mich.. 2.34 

Glens Falls, N. Y.. 2.70 
** Lake ChamT)?ain, 

N.Y 2.75 

Sandstone, Portland, Conn ... 2 . 64 

Haverstraw, N. Y. 2.13 

Medina, N.Y 2.41 

Potsdam, N. Y.... 2.60 

(grit)Berea, O.... 2.12 



TABLE XII. 
Specific Gravity of Common Minerals and Bocks. 



Apatite 

Basalt 

Calcite, CaCOs 

Cassiterite, SnOa 

Cerrusite, PhCoj 

Chalcopyrite, CuFeSj.. 

Coal, anthracite 

Coal, bituminous 

Diabase 

Diorite 

Dolomite, CaMg (003)2. 

Feldspar 

Felsite 

Galena, PbS 

Garnet 

Gneiss 

Granite 

Gypsum 

Halite (salt), NaCl 

Hematite, Fe208 

Hornblende 

Limonite, Fe304 (0H)6. 



2.92—3.25 Limestone 2.35—2.87 

3.01 Magnetite, Fe304 4.9 —5.2 

2.5 —2.73 Marble 2.08—2.85 

6.4 —7.1 Mica 2.75—8.1 

6.46—6.48 Mica Schist 2.5 —2.9 

4.1 —4.3 Olivine 3.38—3.5 

1.3 —1.84 Porphyry 2.5 —2.6 

1.2 —1.5 Pyrite, FeS2 4.83—5.2 

2.6—3.08 Quartz, SiOa...... 2.5—2.8 

2.92 Quartzite 2.6-2.7 

2.8 —2.9 Sandstone 2.0 —2.78 

2.44—2.78 " Medina 2.4 

2.65 " Ohio 2.2 

7.25—7.77 " Slaty 1.82 

3.15—4.31 Shale 2.4 —2.8 

2.62-2.92 Slate 2.5 —2.8 

2.55—2.86 Sphalerite, ZnS 3.9—4.2 

2.3 —3.28 Stibnite, Sb2S3 4.5 —4.6 

2.1 —2.56 Syenite 2.27—2.65 

4.5 —5.3 Talc 2.66—2.8 

3.05—3.47 Trap 2.6 —3.0 

3.6 -4.0 



The weight of a cubic foot of loose gravel or stone is 
therefore no accurate index of the percentage of voids un- 
less the specific gravity is known. 

Tables XL and XII. show specific gravities of different min- 
erals and rocks, and weights of broken stone corresponding 
to different percentages of voids. 

It is rare that a gravel has less than 30% or more than 
45% voids. If the pebbles vary considerably in size, so 
that the small fit in between the large, the voids may be 
as low as 30%; but if the pebbles are tolerably uniform the 
voids will approach 45%. 

Broken stone, being angular, does not compact so read- 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 



263 



TABLE XIII. 







•rl (D . 












'n^ 


4^ ft^- 




Weight in 


Lbs. per cu 


. yd. when 








Voids are 








^^g 


^^o 


30% 


35% 


400/0 


45% 


50% 


1.0 


62.355 


1,684 


1,178 


1,094 


1,010 


926 


842 


2.0 


124.7 


3.367 


2,357 


2,187 


2,020 


1.852 


1,684 


2.1 


130.9 


3,536 


2.475 


2,298 


2,121 


1.945 


1,768 


2.2 


137.2 


3,704 


2,593 


2.408 


2,222 


2,037 


1,852 


2.3 


143.4 


•3,872 


2,711 


2,517 


2,323 


2,130 


1.936 


2.4 


149.7 


4,041 


2,828 


2,626 


2.424 


2,222 


2,020 


2.5 


155.9 


4,209 


2,946 


2,736 


2.525 


2,315 


2,105 


2.6 


162.1 


4,377 


3,064 


2,845 


2,626 


2,408 


2.189 


2.7 


168.4 


4,546 


3,182 


2.955 


2,727 


2,500 


2.273 


2.8 


174.6 


4,714 


3,300 


3,064 


2.828 


2.593 


2,357 


2.9 


180.9 


4,882 


3,418 


3,174 


2,929 


2.685 


2.441 


3.0 


187.1 


5.051 


3,536 


3,283 


3.030 


2,778 


2,526 


3.1 


193.3 


5,219 


3,653 


3,392 


3,131 


2,871 


2.609 


3.2 


199.5 


5,388 


3,771 


3,502 


3,232 


2,968 


2,694 


3.3 


205.8 


5.556 


3,889 


3,611 


3,333 


8.056 


2,778 


3.4 


212.0 


5,7i>4 


4,007 


3.721 


3,434 


3.148 


2,862 


3.5 


218.3 


5,893 


4,125 


3,830 


3.535 


8,241 


2.947 



TABLE XIV. 
Voids in Lioose Broken Stone. 



Authority. 


% 
Voids. 


Eemarks. 


Sabin 


49.0 

44.0 

46.5 
47.5 

47.0 
39 to 42 
48 to 52 

48.0 

50.0 

47.6 
49.5 
48.0 
43.0 
46.0 
53.4 
51.7 
52.1 
45.3 
45.3 
54.5 
54.5 
45.0 
51.2 
40.0 
39.0 
46.0 


Limestone, crusher run after screening 




out ^-in. and under. 
Limestone (1 part screenings mixed with 


Wm. M. Black 


6 parts broken stone). 
Screened and washed, 2 ins. and under. 


J. J. K. Oro©s K. 

S. B. Newberry 

H. P. Boardman 

Wm. n. Hall 


Gneiss, after screening out ^'-in. and 

under. 
Chiefly about egg size. 
Chicago limestone, crusher run. 

•• '* screened into sizes. 
Green River limestone, 2% ihs. and 


"Wm. H.Hall 


smaller, dust screened out. 
Hudson River trap, 2K Ins. and smaller. 


Wm. B. Fuller 


dust screened out. 
New Jersey trap, crusher run, ^ to 2.1 in. 
Roxbury conglomerate, >^ to 23^ ins. 
Limestone, 3^ to 3 Ins. 

" 2-in. size. 


Geo. A. Kimball 

Myron S. Falls. 


W. H. Henby 




" iv^-in. size. 


Feret 


Stone, 1.6 to 2.4 ins. 




0.8 to 1.6 in. 


(( 


0.4 to 0.8 in. 


A. W. Dow 


Bluestone, 89% being 1>^ to 2^ Ins. 




90% beini? i to l>i in. 


Taylor and Thompson 

G. W. Chandler 

Emlle Low 


Trap, hard, 1 to 2 3^ ins. 
Ktolin. 
" to 2 Kins, 
soft, 3^ to 2 ins. 
Canton, 111. 
Buffalo limestone, crusher run, dust In. 


C. M. Savllle 


Crushed cobblestone, screened into sizes. 







Gravel 


Voids in Mixture 


0% 


48^ 


20 


44 


30 


41 


40 


38>^ 


50 


86 


100 


35 



264 HANDBOOK OF C0S7' DATA. 

lly as gravel, and shows a higher percentage of voids when 
the fragments are uniform in size and shoveled loosely into 
a box; but the voids, even then, seldom exceed 52%. 

The following records of actual tests will indicate the 
range of void percentages: 

Prof. S. B. Newberry gives the voids in Sandusky Bay 
gravel, % to %-in. size, as being 42.4% voids » % to V2o-in. 
size, 35.9% voids. 

Mr. William H. Hall gives the following tests on mixtures 
of Green River, Ky., blue limestone and Ohio River washed 
gravel: 

stone 

100% with 

80 

70 

60 

50 


The stone passed a 2%-in. screen and the dust was re- 
moved by a fine screen. The gravel passed a l^/^-in. screen. 

The voids in mixtures of Hudson River trap rock and 
clean gravel, of the sizes just given for the Kentucky mate- 
rials, were as follows: 

Trap Gravel Voids in Mixture 

100% with 0% 50% 

60 •* 40 38>^ 

50 " 50 36 

" 100 35 

Mr. H. von, Schon gives tests on a gravel having 34.1 %i 
voids as follows: 

Ketalnedon 1 -in ring 10.70% 

X-in. ring 23.65 

No. 4 sieve 8.70 

No. 10 sieve 17.14 

No. 20 sieve 21.76 

No. 30 sieve 6.49 

No. 40 sieve 5.96 

Passed No. 40 sieve , 5 59 

l>i-inring 100.00 

Peret gives the following results of tests on mixtures of 
different sizes of pebbles, and mixtures of different sizes of 
stone (the stone and pebbles were not mixed together) : 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 



265 



Passing a ring of 

Held by a ring 



Parts , 









Voids in -v 


2.4" 


1.6" 


0.8" 


Round 


Broken 


1.6" 


0.8" 


0.4" 


Pebbles 


Stone 


1 








40.0% 


53 4% 





1 





38.8 


51.7 








1 


41.7 


52.1 


1 


1 





35.8 


50.5 


1 







35.6 


47.1 





1 




37.9 


49.5 


1 


1 




35.5 


47.8 


4 


1 




34.5 


49.2 


1 


4 




36.6 


49.4 


1 


1 




88.1 


48.6 


8 





2 


34.1 





Mr. A. W. Dow gives the following tests on mixtures of 
broken stone and gravel at Washington, D. C: 



, Parts of Broken Bluestone . 


. Parts ol 


Gravel ^ 




Granolithic 


Coarse Average 


Average 


Small 


Voids. 


(92% being 


(89% being (90% being 


(90% being 


(90% being 


Per cent. 


TV'toD 


IV to 2^") Y' to 2") 
1 


rtoU") 


i" to f ") 


45.3 




1 




.... 


45.3 


1 


1 


,, 


.... 


39.5 






1 


.... 


29.3 




1 




1 


35.5 




2 




1 


36.7 



Taylor and Thompson give the following: 



Ref. 

No. 



1.... 
2.... 
3.... 
4.... 
5.... 
6.... 



Stone 
Hard trap 

Soft trap 
Gravel 



Size 



2)^"tol" 
1" to >i" 
2^" too 
2" to X" 

2K"to>i" 



a (=1 

1-t o 



54.5 
54.5 
45.0 
51.2 
61.2 
36.5 



>:*tD 
^a 

a o aB 

*^ « c8 c3 

iiVa 

14.5 
11.9 
14.3 
12.5 



S^-S 






46.9 
35.7 
44.6 
43.1 
27.4 



^ m ce 
tJ ® ^ 

o ® 
O^ 

19.2 
20.5 
20.8 
17.8 
23.9 
11.5 



« ^ S 

43.7 
42.8 
30.6 
40.6 
35.9 
28.2 



The stone was thrown into a measuring box and measured, 
then rammed in 6-in. layers. The variation in the last col- 
umn for Nos. 4 and 5 was due to the breaking of the trap un- 
der the rammer. No. 3 was "crusher run" containing 44.4% 
of No. 1, 33.3% of No. 2, and 22% of screenings from Va-in. 
down to dust. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 were crushed in a gyratory 
crusher; Nos. 4 and 5, in a jaw crusher. 
Mr. George W. Rafter gives the voids in clean liniestone, 



266 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

broken (by hand?) to pass a 2i/^-in. ring, as 43% after being 
''slightly shaken/* and 37i^% after being rammed. 

Mr. Desmond Fitzgerald states that broken stone dropped 
12 ft. into a car measured 7% less in volume after the fall. 

As stated in my **Rock Excavation," I have found that a 
wagon load of broken stone measures 10% less in volume 
after it has traveled a short distance, due to the shaking 
down. In buying broken stone by the cubic yard it is well 
to bear this fact in mind. 

Percentage of Water Required in Mortar. — A good 
rule by which to determine the percentage of water by 
weight for any given mixture of mortar is as follows: 

Multiply the parts of sand by 8, add 24 to the product and 
divide the total by the sum of the parts of sand and cement. 
Example: Required percentage of water for a mortar of 
1 cement to 3 sand: 

Solution. 

1 cement = 24% 

3 sand x 8% = 24% 

4 parts at 12% = 48%i 

Hence the water should be 12% of the combined weight of 
the cement and sand. For a 1:1 mortar, the rule gives 16% 
water. For 1:2 mortar, the rule gives 13%% water. For a 
1:6 mortar, the rule gives 10.3% water. Incidentally, it may 
be added, the percentages of water obtained by this rule 
give a mortar that has the greatest adhesion to steel rods 
(see Falk's '^Cements, Mortars and Concretes," page 61). 

Cost of Sand. — ^The cost of sand may be estimated by 
adding together the cost of loading in the pit, the cost of 
hauling in wagons, the cost of freight and rehandling if 
necessary and the cost of washing. On page 271 are given 
data on the cost of shoveling sand into wagons. The cost 
of wagon hauling Is given on page 83. Freight rates can 
always be secured, and it is usually safe to estimate the 
weight on a basis of 2,700 lbs. per cu. yd., provided the sand 
has not been rained upon after loading in the car. The cost 
of screening sand by hand is the cost of shoveling it up 
against an inclined screen; but if a large amount of gravel 
must be screened to get a small amount of sand, care must 



CONCRETE construction: 267 

be taken to make tests in the pit to ascertain how many 
cubic feet of gravel and sand must be shoveled to secure one 
cubic foot of sand. In some places sand must be dredged or 
pumped with a sand pump from the bottom of a river or 
lake. In other places sand must be made by crushing stone 
and running the small crushed product through rolls. At 
Coudersport, Pa., a small plant for making artificial sand 
from stone has been in operation for many years. 

Stone was crushed and passed through rolls in order to 
make a sand for the mortar used in the Lanchensee Dam, 
Germany. A jaw crusher, driven by a 15-HP. engine, 
crushed 65 cu. yds. of stone (graywacke) per 10-hr. day. 
All pieces from 0.16 to 1.6 ins. diameter were passed 
through rolls. The rolls were 14^^ ins. long and 34 ins. di- 
ameter, and made 22 revolutions per minute, requiring 12 
to 15 HP. A pair of these rolls produced 20 cu. yds. of 
sand per 10-hr. day. The rolls had chilled bands which, 
when worn, were ground true with an emery wheel without 
removing the rolls. 

Where a large amount of concrete is to he made, a con- 
tractor can seldom afford to guess at the source of his sand 
supply. I have known several instances where long hauls 
over poor roads have made the sand more expensive than 
the stone per cubic yard of concrete. Eiach job should be 
estimated in detail, using the data given elsewhere in this 
hook. 

A very common price for sand in cities is $1 per cu. yd., 
delivered at the work. Sand is often sold hy the load, in- 
stead of by the cubic yard. It is wise to have a written 
agreement defining the size of a load. 

Cost of Washing Sand With a Hose.— Where the 
quantity of sand to be washed is not very large, the simplest 
method is to use water from a hose. Build a tank 8 ft. wide 
and 15 ft. long, the bottom having a slope of about 8 ins. 
in the 15 ft. The sides should be about 8 ins. high at the 
lov/er end, rising gradually to 3 ft, the height of the upper 
end. The lower end of this tank should be closed with a 
board gate about 6 ins. high, sliding in guides so that it can 
be removed. Dump about 3 cu. yds. of the dirty sand at 
the upper end of the platform and play a stream of water 
upon it from a %-in. nozzle, the m.an standing on the out- 



268 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

side of the lower end of the platform. The water and sand 
flow down the platform and the dirt passes off with the 
overflow water over the gate. In ahont an hour the batch 
of sand will be washed. By building a pair of platforms the 
washing can proceed continuously; and one man can wash 
30 cu. yds. a day, at a cost of 5 cts. per cu. yd. for his labor. 
To this must be added the cost of shoveling up the sand 
again, say, 10 cts. per cu. yd., and any extra hauling due to 
the location of the washer. If the water is pumped, about 10 
cts. more per cu. yd. will be spent for coal and wages, mak- 
ing a total of 25 cts. per cu. yd. 

IVashing With Sand Ejectors. — ^Where very large 
quantities of sand are to be washed more expensive 
apparatus than above described niay be used. In En- 
gineering News, Feb. 13 and Sept. 11, 1902, will be 
found detail drawings of what are termed "sand ejectors," 
consisting of a row of conical hoppers now used extensively 
for washing filter sand. From the bottom of each hopper the 
sand and water are forced to the top of the next hopper by 
a stream of water passing through an ejector. The dirty 
water overflows at the top of each hopper, and finally clean 
sand is discharged into receiving bins or buckets. One man 
can readily attend to feeding the sand into the first hopper 
and another man will handle the discharge. It requires 
about 3,000 gallons of water per cu. yd. of sand washed, so 
that with an output of 36 cu. yds. of sand in 10 hrs., the 
amount of water to be pumped is 108,000 gallons. A gaso- 
line pump may be used. 

Cost of "Washing Sand in a Tank Washer. — Mr. W. 

H. Roper gives the following data on the cost of washing 
sand for U. S. Lock No. 3, at Springdale, Pa. The sand 
dredged from the river contained much fine coal and silt 
which was removed by the washer, which consisted of a cir- 
cular tank, 9 ft. diam. x 7 ft. high, provided with a sloping 
false bottom perforated with 1-in. holes, through which 
water was forced. A 7% x 5 x 6-in. pump with a 3-in. dis- 
charge pipe was used to force the water into the tank. The 
paddles for keeping the sand in suspension were rotated 
by a 7-HP. engine. A charge of 14 cu. yds. of sand was 
washed in from 1 to 2 hrs., at a cost of 7 cts. per cu. yd. 
This device was designed by Capt W, R. Graham, who is 



CONCRETE COXSTRUCTION. 269 

said to have applied for a patent. It is doubtful whether 
any patentable combination exists in the device. 

Mr. R H. Stephenson gives the following data relating to 
a sand washer designed by Mr. Allen Hazen, which con- 
sisted of a wooden box 10 ft. long, 21/2 ft. wide and 2i^ ft. 
deep; a 6-in. pipe, provided with a gate, or valve, enters at 
one end, and connects with three 3-in. pipes capped at the 
ends. In the bottoms of these 3-in. pipes are ^-in. holes, 
spaced 6 ins. apart, through which water discharges under 
pressure into the box. Sand is shoveled into the box at one 
end, and the upward currents of water raise the fine and 
dirty particles until they escape through the waste troughs. 
When the hox becomes filled with sand a sliding door is 
raised at the end, and the clean sand flows out through a 
3-in. hole in the box. The operation is continuous, so long 
as sand is fed into the washer. By manipulating the door 
the sand can be made to flow out with a very small 
percentage of water. Sand containing 7% of dirt was thus 
washed so that it contained only 0.6% dirt. In 10 hours the 
washer handled 200 cu. yds. of sand. 

If sand is handled to and from the washers by shovels, the 
cost of shoveling is the largest item of expense, and this can 
be easily estimated. If the sand is dumped into bins which 
feed into the washer by gravity, and is finally delivered by 
gravity to buckets or cars, the cost of washing is mainly the 
cost of pumping, plus the interest and depreciation of plant. 
The amount of water required per cubic yard has been given 
above, so that a close estimate of cost can readily be made 
for any given condition. 

Cost of Making Concrete by Hand. — The COSt of mak- 
ing concrete by hand may be divided into the following 
items: 

(1) Loading the barrows, buckets, carts or cars used to 
transport the materials (stone, sand and cement) to the 
mixing board. 

(2) Transporting and dumping the materials. 

(3) Mixing the materials by turning with shovels or hoes. 

(4) Loading the concrete with shovels into barrows, buck- 
ets, carts or cars. 

(5) Transporting the concrete to place. 

(6) Dumping and spreading. 



270 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

(7) Ramming. 

(8) Forms, runways, cement house, 'bins, etc. 

(9) Finishing the surface of the concrete. 

(10) Superintendence and general expense®. 

Unloading tlie Materials From Cars.-^The Stone and 

sand will ordinarily be delivered by wagons or cars and 
dumped into stock piles as near the proposed work as pos- 
sible, without being in the way after construction begins. 
The contractor should use forethought not only in plan- 
ning the location of his stock piles, but also in providing a 
large enough storage capacity to tide over irregularities in 
the delivery of materials, especially where materials come 
by ^^ail from a distance. It is usually a short-sighted policy 
to attempt to unload direct from railway cars onto the mix- 
ing board, without providing a stock pile; for the foreman 
will be spending most of his time trying to get the railroad 
to deliver materials promptly. By all means provide stock 
piles, unless there is some good reason to the contrary. 

Sand can be dumped directly on the ground, but broken 
stone (unless it is very small, %-in. or less in size) should 
always be dumped upon a plank floor, well made. Such a 
floor should consist of 2-in. plank laid on 4 x 6-in. stringers 
firmly bedded in the ground and spaced about 3 ft. apart. 
Never lay a lot of loose plank directly upom the ground, 
without stringers, for they are sure to settle unevenly under 
the load, and thus make it difiicult to shovel up the stone. 
The object of the plank is to provide an even surface along 
which a square pointed shovel can be pushed in loading 
barrows, carts, etc. I flnd that a man can load 18 or 20 cu. 
yds. of broken stone into wheelbarrows in 10 hrs., if he is 
shoveling off a well-laid plank platform, but he will not 
average more than 12 or 14 cu. yds. a day shoveled from a 
pile without a plank flooring. The reason is that a shovel 
can be shoved with diflaculty into a mass of broken stone 
(2-in. size), but can readily be shoved along a plank floor. 
Incidentally I may add that broken stone delivered in hop- 
per-bottom cars can be shoveled with difficulty as compared 
with shoveling in flat-bottom cars; the ratio being about 
14 cu. yds. per man per day from hopper-bottom cars as 
compared with 20 cu. yds. from flat cars. On the other hand, 
the hopper-bottom coal car should always be chosen where 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION^. 271 

it can be dumped through a trestle. If the amount of work 
to be done will justify the expense a trestle may be built. 
Often, however, there is a railroad embankment which can 
be dug away for a short distance and stringers placed to 
support the track. Then the cars can be dumped into the 
hole thus made, and the material shoveled out and down 
the slope. 

I have seen many foremen for railway companies wasting 
hundreds of dollars by shoveling the materials from freight 
cars out upon the earth — often upon the side of an embank- 
ment where shoveling is very difficult. In many cases it 
would have paid well to have unloaded the cars by the aid 
of a stiff-leg derrick and iron buckets or skips loaded by the 
shovelers in the cars; these skips being dumped upon a 
well made platform. In other cases chutes lined with sheet 
iron would have served to deliver the stone upon a plank 
flooring at the foot of the embankment, just as coal is 
delivered into a cellar. Damp sand will not slide down a 
chute on a slope of 1% to 1, but coarse broken stone, if given 
a start when cast, with the shovel, will slide on an iron-shod 
slope of 3 or 4 to 1. 

If the material is delivered in wagons it seldom is neces- 
sary to have large stock piles provided the wagons come 
direct from the sand pit and the quarry. 

Cost o£ Loading the Materials. — ^A man who is a will- 
ing worker can readily load 20 cu. yds. of sand into a 
barrow or cart in 10 hrs., but under poor foremen, or when 
laborers are scarce, it is not safe to count upon more than 
15 cu. yds. a day, or, say, 10 cts. per cu. yd. for loading. 
Practically the same figures hold true of broken stone 
shoveled off a good plank floor; but, if the stone is shoveled 
off the ground, estimate 15 cu. yds. a day under good man- 
agement, or 12 cu. yds. a day under poor management. Since 
in a cubic yard of concrete there are ordinarily about 1 
cu. yd. of broken stone and about 0.4 cu. yd. of sand, the 
cost of loading the materials into wheelbarrows and carts 
is a^ follows, wages being 15 cts. per hour: 

1 cu. yd. stone loaded for 11 cts. '^ 

0.4 " " sand " " 4 " 

1 cu. yd. concrete loaded for 15 cts. 



^72 BANDBOOK OF CO^T DATA. 

The cement can be loaded with more ease than the other 
materials, whether it is in barrels or in bags, and the cost of 
loading it into barrows or carts will be not over 2 cts. per 
cu. yd. of concrete, thus making a total of 17 cts. per cu. yd. 
for loading the concrete materials into barrows or carts 

Cost of Transporting the Materials. — The most com- 
mon way of transporting the materials from stock piles to 
the mixing board is in wheelbarrows over plank runways. 
A wheelbarrow is usually loaded with 2 sacks of Portland 
cement (200 lbs.), or with 2 cu. ft. of stone or of sand, if a 
steep rise must be made to reach the mixing platform; but, 
if the run is level, 300 lbs. of cement, or 3 cu. ft. of sand or 
stone is a common wheelbarrow load. A man wheeling a 
barrow travels at the rate of about 200 ft. per minute, going 
and coming, and loses ^ minute each trip dumping the load, 
fixing run planks, etc. An active man will do 20 or 25% 
more work than this, while a very lazy man may do 20% 
less. With wages at 15 cts. per hour, the cost of wheeling 
the materials for 1 cu. yd. of concrete may be o'btained by 
the following rule: 

To a fixed cost of 4 cts. (for lost time) add 1 ct. for every 
20 ft. of distance from stock pile to mixing hoard if there is 
a steep rise in the runway, but if the runway is level add 1 
ct. for every 30 ft. distance of haul. Since loading the bar- 
rows costs 17 cts. per cu. yd., the total fixed cost is 4 + 17 cts. 
or 21 cts. per cu. yd., to which is added 1 ct. for every 20 or 
30 ft. of haul, according to the character of the runway. 

I have frequently seen small stock piles located as close 
as possible to mixing boards, so that wheelbarrows were not 
used, the materials being carried in shovels direct to the 
mixing boards. On work of any considerable size this is a 
very foolish plan, as we can readily see. It takes from 100 
to 150 shovelfuls of stone to make 1 cu. yd. It therefore 
costs at the rate of 50 cts. per cu. yd. to carry it 100 ft. and 
return empty handed, for in walking short distances the 
men travel very slowly — ^about 150 ft. per minute. From 
this it appears that it costs more to walk even half a dozen 
paces with stone carried in shovels than to wheel it in 
barrows. Of course, by using large coal scoops the cost of 
carrying material in shovels could be reduced to one-half or 
one-third the cost with ordinary shovels; but scoops are 
never used in mixing concrete. 



CONCRETE COXSTRLCTIOX. 273 

Another mistake that is very commonly made by foremen 
is to provide no plank runways from the stock pile to the 
mixing board, but instead to run the wheelbarrows over the 
ground. This Is bad enough even in dry weather over a 
very hard packed earth path, but after a rain or on a soft 
pathway it means a great loss of efficiency. Had I not seen 
this error committed repeatedly, I should not mention it, for 
it would seem that no foreman could be so short-sighted as 
not to provide a few planks for runways. 

Where the runway must rise to the mixing board, give it a 
slope or grade seldom steeper. than 1 in 8, and if possible 
flatter. Make a runway on a trestle at least 18 ins. wide, so 
that men will be in no danger of falling. See to it, also, that 
the planks are so well supported that they do not spring 
down when walked over, for a springy plank makes hard 
wheeling. If the planks are so long between the **horses" or 
"bents" used to support them, that they spring badly, it is 
usually a simple matter to nail a cleat across the underside 
of the planks and stand an upright strut underneath to 
support and stiffen the plank. 

Materials may be hauled in one-horse dump-carts for all 
distances more than 50 ft. (from stack pile to mixing board) 
at a cost less than for wheelbarrow hauling. A cart should 
be loaded in 4 mins. and dumped in about 1 min., making 5 
mins. lost time each round trip. It should travel at a speed 
of not less than 200 ft. per min., although it is not unusual 
to see variations of 15 or 20%, one way or another, from this 
average, depending upon the management of the work. A 
one-horse cart will readily carry enough stone and sand to 
make -^ cu. yd. of concrete, if the roads are fairly hard and 
level; and a horse can pull this load up a 10% (rise of 1 ft. 
in 10 ft.) planked roadway provided with cleats to give a 
foothold. If a horse, cart and driver can be hired for 30 
cts. per hour, the cost of hauling the materials for 1 cu. yd. 
of concrete is given by the following rule: 

To a fixed cost of 5 cts. (for lost time at both ends of 
haul) add 1 ct. for every 100 ft. of distance from stock pile 
to mixing board. Where carts a^e used it is possible to 
locate the stock piles several hundred feet from the mixing 
boards without adding materially to the cost of the concrete. 
It is well, however, to have the stock piles in sight of the 
foreman at the mixing board, so as to insure promptness of 
delivery. 



274 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of Mixing the Materials. — ^^This element of cost 
depends upon the number of times that the materials are 
turned over with shovels. I have seen street paving work 
where the inspection was so lax that the contractor was 
required to turn over the mass of iSand, cement and stone 
only three times before shoveling it into place. On the 
other hand, the contractor is rarely required to turn over the 
cement and sand more than three times dry and three times 
wet to make the mortar, and then turn over the mortar and 
stone three times. A willing -workman, under a good fore- 
man, will turn over mortar at the rate of 30 cu. yds. in 10 
hrs., lifting each shovelful and casting it into a pile. This 
means a cost of 5 cts. per cu. yd. of mortar for each turn; 
but as there is seldom more than 0.4 cu. yd. of mortar per cu. 
yd. of concrete, we have a cost of 2 cts. per cu. yd. of con- 
crete for each turn that is given to the mortar. So if the 
mortar is given 6 turns before adding the stone, we have 
2 cts. X 6 which is 12 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete for mixing 
the mortar. Then if the mortar and stone are turned three 
times we have 5 cts. x 3, or 15 cts. more for mixing, 
thus making a total of 27 cts. per cu. yd. for mixing the 
concrete, wages being 15 cts. per hr. 

I recall seeing one specification that called for 6 turns of 
the mortar dry and 3 turns wet. Under such^a specification 
the cost of mixing the mortar would be 50% more than I 
have assumed in the example just given. Specifications for 
hand mixing should always state the number of turns that 
will be required, but frequently they do not, thus leaving 
the contractor to guess at the probable requirements of the 
inspector. In such a case it is a good plan to use hoes in- 
stead of shovels for mixing the mortar, because in this way 
a good mortar can be mixed with much greater rapidity than 
when an inspector insists on 6 to 9 turns with shovels, as 
frequently happens when specifications are ambiguous. 

As above stated, it often happens that on city pavement 
work, two turns of the mortar, followed by two turns of the 
mortar and stone, are considered sufiicient. In such a case 
the cost of mixing the mortar is 2 cts. x 2, or 4 cts. per cu. 
yd. of concrete; to which is added 5 cts. x 2, or 10 cts., for 
mixing the mortar and stone, making in all 14 cts. per cu. 
yd. of concrete. When concrete is mixed very wet, or 
sloppy, this amount of mixing appears to give good results. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 275 

Where a given number of turns of concrete is specified, 
disputes often occur between inspectors and foremen as to 
whether shoveling into wheelbarrows constitutes a "turn" 
or not, and whether any subsequent shoveling in getting the 
concrete to its final resting place constitutes a "turn." It 
seems but fair to count each handling with the shovel as a 
turn, no matter when or where it occurs, but inspectors will 
not always look upon it in that light. 

The foregoing costs of mixing apply to work done by dili- 
gent men; but easy-going men will make the cost 25 to 50% 
greater. I have seen this latter class of men most fre- 
quently on day labor work for cities, railways and other 
companies and corporations whose foremen have little or no 
incentive to secure a fair day's work from the men. 

Cost of Loading and Hauling Concrete. — The cost of 
loading concrete, after it is mixed, is less than the cost of 
loading the materials separately hefore mixing, because 
while the weight is greater (due to the added water), the 
bulk or volume of the concrete is much less than the 
volume of the ingredients before mixing. Moreover a 
smooth mixing board, and the presence of the foreman, 
secures more rapid work. In shoveling any material a large 
part of the work consists in forcing the shovel into, or 
under, the mass to be lifted. With wages at 15 cts. per hour, 
the cost of loading concrete into barrows or buckets should 
not exceed 12 cts. per cu. yd. The cost of wheeling it after 
loading is practically the same as for wheeling the 
dry ingredients, as given by the rule on page 272. 
The cost per cubic j^ard of loading and wheeling is therefore 
given by this rule: To a fixed cost of 16 cts. (for loading 
and lost time) add 1 ct. for every 30 ft. of level haul. 

If the concrete must be elevated, a gallows frame, or a 
mast with a pulley block at the top, a team of horses and a 
rope for hoisting the skip load of concrete, can often be 
used to advantage. An example of the cost of filling steel 
cylinders by this method is given on page 336. 

Another method, well worthy of more frequent use, con- 
sists in wheeling the barrows of concrete to a gallows frame 
where they are raised by a horse, and then wheeled to place, 
as described on page 327. 

In building railway abutments, culverts, and the like, it is 
often desirable to locate the mixing board on high ground. 



276 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

perhaps at some little distance from the forms. If this can 
he done, the use of derricks may 'be avoided as above sug- 
gested or by building a light pole trestle from the mixing 
board to the forms. The concrete can then be wheeled in 
barrows and dumped into the forms. If the mixing board 
can be located on ground as high as the top of the concrete 
structure is to be, obviously a trestle will enable the men to 
wheel on a level runway. Such a trestle can be built very 
cheaply, especially where second-hand lumber, or lumber 
that can be used subsequently for forms is available. A 
pole trestle whose bents are made entirely of round sticks 
cut from the forest is a very cheap structure, if a foreman 
knows how to throw it together and up-end the bents after 
they are made. I have put up such trestles for 25 cts. 
per lineal foot of trestle, including all labor of cutting the 
round timber, erecting it, and placing a plank flooring 4 ft 
wide on top. The stringers and flooring plank were used 
later for forms, and their cost is not included. A trestle 100 
ft. long can thus -be built at less cost than hauling, erecting 
and taking down a derrick; and once the trestle is up it 
saves the cost of operating a derrick. 

Concrete made with Portland cement (but not with nat- 
ural cement) can be hauled long distances in a cart or 
wagon before it begins to harden. This fact should be taken 
advantage of by contractors far oftener than it is. I am in- 
clined to think that the extensive use of natural cement, 
which sets too quickly to admit of hauling far, has blinded 
contractors to the possibilities of saving money by hauling 
Portland cement concrete long distances. Since a cart is 
readily hauled at a speed of 200 ft. a minute, where there 
are no long steep hills, it is evident that in QV2 minutes a 
cart can travel a quarter of a mile; in 13 mins., half a mile; 
and in 26 minutes, a mile. Now, Portland cement does 
not begin to set for 30 minutes; hence it may be hauled a 
mile after mixing it. The cost of hauling concrete with one- 
horse dump-carts is practically the same as the cost of haul- 
ing its dry ingredients, as given on page 272. 

Cost of Dumping, Spreading and Ramming. — ^The cost 
of dumping wheelbarrows and carts is included in the rules 
of cost already given, excepting that in some cases it is 
necessary to add the wages of a man at the dump who 
assists the cart drivers or the barrow men. Thus in dump- 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 277 

ing concrete from barrows into a deep trench or pit, it is 
usually advisable to dump into a galvanized iron hopper 
provided with an iron pipe chute. One man can readily 
dump all the barrows that can be filled from a concrete 
mixer in a day, say 150 cu. yds. At this rate of output the 
cost of dumping would be only 1 ct. per cu. yd., but if one 
man were required to dump the output of a small gang of 
men, say 25 cu. yds., the cost of dumping would he 6 cts. per 
cu. yd. 

Concrete dumped through a chute requires very little work 
to spread it in 6-in. layers; and, in fact, concrete that can he 
dumped from wheelbarrows, which do not all dump in one 
place, can be spread very cheaply; for not more than half 
the pile dumped from the barrow needs to be moved, and 
then moved merely hy pushing with a shovel. Since the 
spreader also rams the concrete, it is difficult to separate 
these two items. As nearly as I have been able to estimate 
this item of spreading "dry'* concrete dumped from wheel- 
barrows in street paving work, the cost is 5 cts. per cu. yd. 
If, on the other hand, nearly all the concrete must be 
handled by the spreaders, as in spreading concrete dumped 
from carts, the cost is fully double, or 10 cts, per cu. yd. 
And if the spreader has to walk even 3 or 4 paces to place 
the concrete after shoveling it up, the cost of spreading will 
be 15 cts. per cu. yd. For this reason it is apparent that 
carts are not as economical as wheelbarrows for 
hauling concrete up to about 200 ft., due to the added cost 
of spreading material delivered by carts. 

The preceding discussion of spreading is based upon the 
assumption that the concrete is not so wet that it will run. 
Obviously where concrete is made of small stones and con- 
tains an excess of water, it will run so readily as to require 
little or no spreading. 

The cost of ramming concrete depends almost entirely 
upon its dryness and upon the numher of cubic yards de- 
livered to the rammers. Concrete that is mixed with very 
little water requires long and hard ramming to flush the 
water to the surface. The yardage delivered to the ram- 
mers is another factor, because if only a few men are 
engaged in mixing they will not be able to deliver enough 
concrete to keep the rammers properly busy, yet the ram- 
mers by slow though continuous pounding may be keeping 



278 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

up an appearance of working. Then, again, I have noticed 
that the slower the concrete is delivered the more particular 
the average inspector becomes. Concrete made "sloppy" 
requires no ramming at all, and very little spading. 

I have had men do very thorough ramming of moderately 
dry concrete for 15 cts. per cu. yd., where the rammera 
had no spreading to do, the material being delivered in 
shovels. It is rare indeed that spreading and ramming can 
be made to cost more than 40 cts. per cu. yd., under the most 
foolish inspection, yet one instance is recorded on page 336 
of even higher cost. 

If engineers specify a dry concrete and "thorough ram- 
ming" they would do well also to specify what the word 
"thorough" is to mean, using language that can be expressed 
in cents per cubic yard. It is a common thing, for example, 
to see a sewer trench specification in which one tamper 
is required for each two men shoveling the back-fill into 
the trench; and some such specific requirement should be 
made in a concrete specification if close estimates from 
reliable contractors are desired. Surely no engineer will 
claim that this is too unimportant a matter for considera- 
tion when it is known that ramming can easily be made to 
cost as high as 40 cts. per cu. yd., depending largely upon 
the whim of the inspector. 

The Cost o£ Superintendence. — This item is obviously 
dependent upon the yardage of concrete handled under 
one foreman and the daily wages of the foreman. If a 
foreman receives $3 a day and is bossing a job where only 
12 cu. yds. are placed daily, we have a cost of 25 cts. per cu. 
yd. for superintendence. If the same foreman is handling a 
gang of 20 men whose output is 50 cu. yds., the superin- 
tendence item is only 6 cts. per cu. yd. If the same foreman 
is handling a concrete-mixing plant having a daily output of 
150 cu. yds., the cost of superintendence is but 2 cts. per cu. 
yd. I have given these elementary examples simply because 
figures are more impressive than generalities, and because it 
is so common a sight to see money wasted by running too 
small a gang of men under one foreman. 

Of all classes of contract work, none is more readily 
estimated day by day than concrete work, not only because 
it is usually built in regular shapes whose volumes are 
easily ascertained at the end of each day, but because a 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 279 

record of .the bags, or barrels, or batches gives a ready 
method of computing the output of each gang. For thia 
reason small gangs of concrete workers need no foreman at 
all, provided one of the workers is given command and re- 
quired to keep tally of the batches. If the efficiency of a 
gang of 6 men were to fall off, say, 15%, by virtue of having 
no regular non-working foreman in charge, the loss would 
be only $1.35 a day — a loss that would be more than counter- 
balanced by the saving of a foreman's wages. Indeed, the 
efficiency of a gang of 6 men would have to fall off 25%, or 
more, before it would pay to put a foreman in charge. I 
know by experience that in many cases the efficiency will 
not fall off at all, provided the gang knows that its daily 
progress is being recorded, and that prompt discharge will 
follow laziness. Indeed, I have more than once had the 
efficiency increased by leaving a small gang to themselves in 
command of one of the workers who was required to punch 
a hole in a card for every batch. 

To reduce the cost of superintendence there is no surer 
method than to work two gangs of 18 to 20 men, side by side, 
each gang under a separate foreman who is striving to make 
a better showing than his competitor. This is done with 
marked advantage in street paving, and could be done else- 
where oftener than it is. 

In addition to the cost of a foreman in direct charge of 
the laborers, there is always a percentage of the cost of 
general superintendence and office expenses to be added. 
In some cases a general superintendent is put in charge of 
one or two foremen; and, if he is a high-salaried man, the 
cost of superintendence becomes a very appreciable item. 
Cne instance of this is given on page 328. 

SiTmmary of Costs. — ^Having thus analyzed the costs of 
making and placing concrete, we can understand why it is 
that printed records of costs vary so greatly. Moreover, we 
are enabled to estimate the labor cost with far more ac- 
curacy than we can guess it; for by studying the require- 
ments of the specifications, and the local conditions gov- 
erning the placing of stock piles, mixing boards, etc., we can 
estimate each item with considerable accuracy. My purpose, 
however, has not been solely to show how to predict the 
labor cost, but also to indicate to contractors and their fore- 
men some of the many possibilities of reducing the cost of 



280 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

work once the contract has been secured. I have found that 
an analysis of costs, such as above given, is the most effec- 
tive way of discovering unnecessary "leaks," and of opening 
one's eyes to the possibilities of effecting economies in any 
given case. 

To indicate the method of summarizing the costs of mak- 
ing concrete by hand, let us assume that the concrete is to 
be put into a deep foundation requiring wheeling a distance 
of 30 ft.; that the stock piles are on plank 60 ft. distant 
from the mixing board; that the specifications call for 6 
turns of gravel concrete thoroughly rammed in 6-in. layers; 
and that a good sized gang of, say, 16 men (at $1.50 a day 
each) is to work under a foreman receiving $2.70 a day. We 
then have the following summary by applying the rules 
already given: Per cu. yd. 

concrete. 

Loading sand, stone and cement $ .17 

Wheeling 60 ft. in barrows (4 + 2 cts.) 06 

Mixing concrete, 6 turns at 5 cts .30 

Loading concrete into barrows 12 

Wheeling 30 ft. (4 + 1 ct.) 05 

Dumping barrows (1 man helping barrowman) 05 

Spreading and heavy ramming 15 

Total cost of labor $ .90 

Foreman, at $2.70 a day 10 

Grand total $1.00 

' To estimate the daily output of this gang of 16 laborers 
proceed thus: Divide the daily wages of all the 16 men, ex- 
pressed in cents, by the labor cost of the concrete in cents, 
the quotient will be the cubic yards output of the gang. 
Thus, 2,400 -7- 90 is 27 cu. yds., in this case. 

In street paving work where no man is needed to help 
dump the wheelbarrows, and where it is usually possible to 
shovel concrete direct from the mixing board into place, and 
where half as much ramming as above assumed is usually 
satisfactory, we see that the last four labor items instead 
of amounting to 12 + 5 + 5 + 15, or 37 cts., amount only to one- 
half of the last item, V2 of 15 cts., or 7% cts. This makes the 
total labor cost only 60 cts. instead of 90 cts. If we divide 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 281 

2,400 cts. (the total day's wages of 16 men) by 60 cts. (the 
labor cost per cu. yd.), we have 40 which is the cubic yards 
output of the 16 men. This greater output of the 16 men 
reduces the cost of suiperintendence to 7 cts. per cu. yd. 

Cost of Mixing Concrete With Machines.— Care must 
be taken not to confuse the cost of mixing concrete with 
the cost of delivering materials to the mixer and convey- 
ing the concrete away from the mixer. A study of the 
various costs given on subsequent pages will show that the 
cost of mixing alone is only a small part of the total cost 
of making concrete. 

If all the materials are delivered to the machine in wheel- 
barrows, and if the concrete is conveyed away in wheel- 
barrows, the cost of making concrete, even with machine 
mixers, is high. On the other hand, where the materials 
are fed from bins by gravity into the mixer, and where 
the concrete is hauled away in cars, the cost of making the 
concrete may be very low. 

There are three types of mixers: (1) Batch mixers; (2) 
continuous mixers; (3) gravity mixers. The cube mixers, 
double-cone mixers of the Smith make, and the drum 
mixers of the Ransome make, are all batch mixers in which 
a charge of materials i^ rotated for 10 or 15 turns and then 
discharged all at once. The continuous mixers have paddles 
or plows that stir up the materials as fast as they are de- 
livered, a continuous stream of concrete being discharged. 
In the gravity mixers the falling materials strike baffle 
plates which perform the mixing. 

Batch mixers are commonly made in three sizes, %-yd., 
%-yd. and 1-yd, It is generally considered suflacient to 
give the mixer 10 to 15 turns, occupying 1 to 1^/^ minutes, 
after charging it with a batch; but as some time is ct)n- 
sumed in charging and discharging, etc., it is safe to count 
on only one batch every 3 mins., or 200 batches in 10 hrs. 
If each batch is %-yd., the daily output is lOO cu. yds.; if 
the batch is 1 yd., the daily output is 200 cu. yds. 

Where the work is well organized, and no delays occur 
in delivering the materials to the mixer, a batch every 2 
mins., or 300 batches in 10 hrs., will be averaged; and there 
are a few records of 1 batch every 1% mins. 



282 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Not more than 12 HP. are required to run a %-yd. mixer. 
Where materials are delivered from bins or skips 2 men 
will charge a %-yd. mixer and 1 man will attend to dump- 
ing it, and a gasoline engine consuming 10 gals, of gasoline 
per 10-hr. day at 12l^ cts. per gal., will represent the full 
cost of labor and fuel for mixing 200 cu. yds. If the 2 men 
are paid $1.50 each, and 1 man at $1.75, the cost of labor 
and fuel is only $6.00, or 3 cts. per cu. yd. It is not in the 
mixing, therefore, that the money is consumed, but in con- 
veying materials to and from the mixer, in ramming the 
concrete, in installing the plant for mixing and conveying, 
and in interest and depreciation charges. 

Mortar can not be mixed in cubical mixers or in any mix- 
ers not provided with baffle plates or with paddles, due to 
the fact that the mortar rolls up into balls unless broken 
by baffles or paddles. Both the Smith mixer and the 
Ransome mixer can be used for mixing mortar as well as 
for concrete mixing. I know this from experience with 
them. Doubtless some other makes of mixers are equally 
satisfactory. 

The following table gives sizes and capacities of the Ran- 
some concrete mixer: 

No. of Mixer. (1) (2) (3) (4) 

Size of batch, cement, cu. ft. 1 2 3 4 

sand, "3 6 9 12 

Btone, " 6 12 18 24 

Capacityperhour, cu. yds.. 10 20 30 40 

Horse power, engine ( 5x5 7x7 8x8 9x9 

rated } 5 h.p. 10 h. p. 14 h. p. 20 h.p. 

boiler ) 30 x 60 36 x 72 42 x 84 42 x 108 

rated ] 7 h.p. 12 h.p. 20 h.p. 27 h.p. 

Speedof drum, rev. per min. 16 15 14>^ 14 
Speed of driving shaft, rev. 

per min 116 122 94 99 

^ ., (54diam. 60 diam. 63 diam. 69 diam. 

Measurements of drum j x 36 x 42 x 48 x 54 

Weights of mixer on skids. 2,700 2,800 1,800 5,000 

Weights of mixer and en- 
gine on skids 3,800 4,600 7,500 9,200 

Weights of mixer, engine 
and boiler on skids 6,000 7,100 11,500 14,100 

The Municipal Engineering and Contracting Co., of Chi- 
cago, gives the following data relative to the horse-power 
required for the different sizes of their cube mixer: 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 



283 



Number 

of 
Mixer. 

1 

2 

2y» 

3 

4 

5 

6 



Horse 

Power. 

Steam. 

28 

12 

, 9 

6 

5 

3 

1 



Horse 

Power. 

Gasoline. 

30 

16 

12 

Q 

6 

4 

1 



Concrete in 
Place, cu. yds. 
per batch. 
2 
1 
% 
Yx 



The following data as to the weights of this mixer will 
be useful: 

Crated for 
E^xport, 
lbs. 
6,300 
7,970 
7,800 
8,325 



1/^ yd. on Skids, with pulley or gear . . 
% " Wheels, with pulley or gear 
y^ " Skids, with engine mounted 
% " Wheels, with engine mounted 
1/^ " Skids, engine and boiler 

mounted 

y^ " Wheels, engine and boiler 

mounted 

1 " Skids, with pulley or gear . . 
1 " Wheels, with pulley or gear. . 
1 " Skids, with engine mounted 
1 " Wheels, with engine mounted 
1 " Skids, engine and boiler 

mounted 

1 " Wheels, engine and boiler 

mounted 



Net, 
lbs. 
3,600 
4,550 
4,350 
5,300 

6,250 

7,200 
6,000 
7,425 
7,250 
8,675 

10,600 

12.000 



10,937 

12,600 
10,500 
13,000 
12,737 
15,200 

18,550 

21,000 



Cost of Forms. — It is common practice to record the cost 
of forms or molds in cents per cubic yard of concrete, giv- 
ing separately the cost of lumber and labor. This should be 
done, but the analysis of the coist of forms should always 
be carried a .step farther. The records should be so kept as 
to show the first cost per M (i. e., 1,000 ft. B. M.) of lumber, 
the number of times the lumber is used, the labor cost of 
erecting, and the labor cost of taking down the forms each 
time — all expressed in M ft. B. M. Thus only is it possible 
to compare the cost of formis on different kinds of concrete 
work, and thus only can accurate predictions be made of 



284 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

the cost of form® for concrete work having dimensions dif- 
fering from work ipreviously done. It is well also to make 
record of the number of square feet of exposed concrete 
surface to which the forms were applied. There are three 
ways, therefore, of recording the cost of forms: (1) In cents 
per cubic yard o^f 'Concrete; (2) in cents per square foot of 
concrete face to which forms are applied; and (3) in dollars 
per M ft. B. M. of lumber used — in all three cases keeping 
the cost of materials and labor separate. Furthermore, it 
is well to make a sketch of the construction of the forms, 
and attach the isketch to the record of cost. 

I find few engineers who are able to estimate 'Closely the 
cost of forms for any class of 'concrete work that is 'new to 
them. This is due mainly to the practice of recording the 
costs only in terms of the cubic yard as the unit 

In estimating the probable cost of formis I find the fol- 
lowing method most reliable: First, after ascertaining the 
time limit within which the work must be completed, deter- 
mine the numiber of cubic yards of concrete that must be 
laid each day, after allowing liberally for delays. Knowing 
the number of cubic yards, estimate the number of thou- 
sand feet board measure of forms required to encase the 
concrete to be placed in a day. This will give the minimum 
amount of lumber required, for it is never permissible to 
move the forms until the concrete has hardened over night. 
This brings us to a very important question in economics. 
Thousands of words have been written on the advantages 
and disadvantages of using "wet'' or *'dry" concrete, but I 
have never seen mention of one of the most forceful objec- 
tions to the use of concrete mixed so wet that it is sloppy. 
I refer to the slowness with which such concrete hardens. 
Obviously, the more slowly it hardens, the longer must the 
forms be left in place; and the longer the forms are left in 
place the more lumber will be required; the more the 
lumber, the greater the cost of forms per cubic yard of 
concrete. 

A concrete mixed "dry," and rammed, will harden over 
night, so that in retaining wall construction it is safe to 
remove the forms the next morning; but, where the con- 
crete has been mixed "sloppy," I have seen whole sections 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 285 

Of wall fall out upon the removal of forms twelve hours 
after placing the concrete. In cold weather the setting 
is further delayed, and in very cold weather it may eease 
entirely unless proper precautions are taken. Specifioations 
relating to sloppy concrete usually iprovide that wall forms 
shall not he moved within 48 hours after placing the con- 
crete; but in hot weather it is often safe to remove the 
forms in 24 hours or less. 

Forms for concrete arches or beams mujst obvioiusly be 
left in place longer than in wall work, because of the tend- 
ency to fail by rupture across the arch or beam. Forms for 
small circular arches, like sewers, may be removed in 18 to 
24 hours if dry concrete is used; but in 24 to 48 hours if 
wet concrete is used. Forms for large arch culverts and 
arch bridges are seldom takein down in less than 14 days, 
and it is often specified that they must not be struck for 
28 days after placing the last of the concrete. This last re- 
quirement is probably necessary where the backfilling over 
the arch is put on at once; but, except in the case of arches 
of great span, there appears to be no sufficient reason for 
keeping the centers so long under the arch, provided they 
can be used elsewhere. Indeed, I am inclined to think that 
a week's time is ample for arches having a span of 40 ft. or 
less, provided no filling is placed on the arch. In fact, a 
study of the compressive strength tests given in Falk's 
**Oements, Mortars and Concretes," pages 128, 131, etc., 
shows that the difference of compressive strength between 
7-day and 28-day Portland cement mortar and concrete Is 
often less than 25 % , and averages about 50 % ; and that in 
any case concrete a week old is amply istrong enough to 
hold its own weight in an arch of moderate size. Progres- 
sive settlement of the abutments might In some cases be 
given as a reason for leaving centers a long time in place, 
but abutments founded on rock- or on pileis do not show 
progressive settlement after the striking o'f centers, unless 
the subsequent jarring of trains causes the piles to go 
down. 

Forms .supporting concrete-steel floors 'and beamis are 
iisually left in a place at least a week. 

The consideration of the time element in the use of forms 



286 



HANDBOGK OF COST DATA. 



is essential in making an accurate forecast of the quantity 
of lumber that will be required in any given case. A few 
additional suggestions will not, therefore, be out of place. 

Often the uprights or istuds used to hold the sheeting 
plank are also used as legs for a trestle to support a track 
or runway over which the concrete is transported. In such 
a case the amount of timber in the forms is considerably 



Frames 6'0" C.toC, 



C->o 




? i>: <7>^> ^1 /' ^^ 
.'^,'^A" doping -:';, ^^ 




FIG. 13. 

more than would be indicated by coinsidering merely the 
length of time that the forrois must stand before removal; 
for, so long as the uprights stand, it is impossible to re- 
move the sheeting plank where ordinary kinds of forms are 
used. I have seen many instances of unnecessary ex- 
penditure of money for forms due to neglect to consider 
this fact. Bear in mind, therefore, that it may be cheaper 
to provide a movable derrick, or to use a cableway for de- 



CONCRETE COlSfSTRVOTlON. 287 

livering the ccncrete, rather than to use the uprights of 
the forms as posts for a trestle. 

I have found it cheaper, as a rule, to build the coping of 
retaining walls after finishing the wall itself. One of the 
reasons for this is that a projecting coping is apt to fall, 
due to its own weight, if the forms are not left in place 
longer than it is necessary to leave the forms for the wall 
below the coping. In an editorial article in Engineering 
News, July 9, 1903, p. 37, I described the simple coping 
forms illustrated in Fig. 13. By providing frames with 
bolts B and C that can be taken out, the forms can be 
knocked down and used again and again. In building a 
12-ft. section of coping, the frames may be supported on 
blocking or on the end of the last section of coping. 

This leadis us to the subject of building forms in panels 
that can be shifted from place to place without tearing the 
forms to pieces and building them up again. When panels 
€an be used, it is evident that the cost of labor and lumber 
for forms may be reduced to a few cents per cubic yard of 
concrete. Exampleis of low cost o'f sewer work where the 
forms are thus shifted in sections will be found on subse- 
quent pages. Even high retaining walls may thus be built 
with movable forms, as illustrated on page 321. 

There are few classes oif concrete work where, at the 
expense of a little thought in designing movable forms, a 
great expense in lumber may not be saved. 

Having estimated the quantity of lumber required for any 
given concrete job, and the number of times that it can 
be used, the labor cost of framing, erecting and taking down 
the forms may be calculated thus: With carpenters' wages 
at 25 cts. per hour, and laborers' wages at 15 cts. per hour, 
working 1 laborer to 2 carpenters, my records show that 
ordinary forms for walls, arches, etc., can be framed and 
erected for $6 per M ft. B. M., when men are working 
for a contractor. The forms can be carefully torn apart, 
taken down and moved a short distance, for $1.50 per M; 
making the total labor cost $7.50 per M. for each time that 
the forms are built up and torn down. Where the forms 
are built in panels and are not ripped apart and nailed 
together again at every move, there is only the cost of mov- 



288 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

ing them each time after they have once been built, and this 
cost may not exceed 50 cts. per M for each move. There is 
another economic advantage in using forms in panels, 
namely, that they last longer. Indeed, there is hardly any 
limit to the number of times that a panel may be used. 
But when forms are torn apart each time, the nail holes 
and the battering due to hammers and pinch bars gradually 
bring the lumber to a state of unfitness. 

For data of actual cost of forms consult the index under 
Concrete Forms and under Timberwork. 

Cost of Lining and Plastering a Reservoir, Forbes 
Hill, Mass. — ^Mr. 0. M. Saville is authority for the following 
cost data on the Forbes Hill Reservoir, Quincy, Mass., built 
l)y contract in 1900-1901. Common laborers were paid $1.50 
per 10-hr. day. There were four classes of concrete used, 
and their itemized costs were as follows: 

Class "A"; Concrete 1:2V2'A. 

1.35 bbl. Portland cement, at $2.23 $3.01 

0.46 cu. yd. sand, at 1.13 .52 

0.74 " " stone, at 1.13 .84 

25 ft. B. M. lumber for forms, at, 20.00 per M. .50 

Labor, on forms 59 

" mixing and placing 1.15 

" general expenses 20 

Total (279 cu. yds.) per cu. yd $6.81 

Class "B"; Concrete 1:3:6. 

1.07 bbl. Portland cement, at $2.23 $2.39 

0.44 cu. yd. sand, at 1.13 .50 

0.88 " " stone, at 1.13 .99 

61/2 ft. B. M. lumber for forms, at 20.00 per M. .13 

Labor, on forms 21 

" mixing and placing 97 

" general expenses 15 

Total (284 cu. yds.) per cu. yd $5.34 

Class "C"; Concrete 1:2:5: 

1.25 bbl. natural cement, at $1.08 $1.35 

0.34 cu. yd. sand, at 1.02 .35 

0.86 " " istone, at 1.57 1.3§ 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 289 

4% ft. B. M. lumber, at 20.00 per M. $0.09 

Labor, on forms 10 

mixing and placing 1.17 

general expenses 08 

Total (400 cu. yds.) per cu. yd ?4.49 

Class ''D"; Concrete l:2i^:6%. 

1.08 'bbl. Portland cement, at $1.53 $1.65 

0.37 cu. yd. sand, at 1.02 .38 

0.96 " " stonei, lat 1.57 1.51 

1 ft. B. M. lumber, at 20.00 per M. .02 

Labor, on forms 12 

mixing and placing 1.21 

" general expenses. 18 

Total (615 cu. yds.) per cu. yd $5.07 

Class "W; Concrete l:2i^:4. 

1.37 bbl. Portland cement, at $1.53 $2.09 

0.47 cu. yd. sand, at 1.02 .48 

0.75 " " stone, at L57 1.17 

121/^ ft. B. M. lumber in forms, at 20.00 per M. .25 

Labor, on forms 26 

" mixing and placing 1.53 

" general expenses 15 

Total (1,222 cu. yds.) per cu. yd $5.93 

In all cases the lumber was used more than once, so that 
the cost of the labor on the forms can not be computed per 
M. ft. B. M. 

Class ''A" was used for walls and floors of gate vault and 
gate chamber, and for cut-off walls. 

Class "B'* was used for the foundations of a standpipe. 

Class *'C," the only natural cement concrete on the work, 
was used for the lower layer of the bottom of the reservoir. 
Then came a layer of Portland cement plaster %-in. thick, 
on which was placed the top layer of Portland cement con- 
crete. Class **E.'* The slopes of the reservoir were lined in a 
similar manner, except that Class ''D" was substituted for 
Class **C." The upper layer of concrete was laid in 10 ft. 
squares, alternate squares being laid and allowed to harden, 
and then the other squares were laid. 



290 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The cement was mostly Atlas, delivered in bags, four of 
which made a barrel, and assumed to be 3.7 cu. ft. All 
concrete, except on the sides, was made rather wet, and was 
kept wet for a week. The cost of laying with the ordinary 
concrete gang was as follows, wages being $1.50 per 10-hr. 
day: 

Cost per 
cu. yd. 
2 men measuring materials $ .15 

2 " mixing mortar 15 

3 " turning concrete (3 times) 2'2 

3 " wheeling " 23 

1 " placing " 07 

2 " ramm.ing " 15 

1 sub-foreman ($2.50) 13 



Total (20 cu. yds. per day) $1.10 

In addition to this gang there were 3 plasterers and 3 
helpers working on the slopes. The %-in. layer of plaster be- 
tween the concrete layers was put down in strips 4 ft. wide 
and finished similar to the surface of a granolithic walk. 
This plaster was mostly 1:2 mortar with finishing surface of 
1:4. Strips of coarse burlap soaked in water were used to 
keep this layer wet and cool; in spite of which some cracks 
appeared. This plastering gang averaged 2,100 sq. ft per 
day, the cost being as follows for %-in. plaster: 



-Sq. yd. 


Cu. yd. 


$0,103 


$7.42 


0.012 


,86 


0.002 


.14 


0.083 


6.00 



I 

100 sq.ft. 

Cement at $1.53 per bbl $1.15 

Sand at $1.02 13 

Burlap .02 

Labor .92 

Totals $2.22 $0,200 $14.42 

Although plastering work is usually measured in square 
yards, I have computed it in areas of 100 sq. ft, and in cubic 
yards for purposes of comparison. It will be seen that it 
took more than 5 bbls. of cement per cu. yd. of this 1:2 
jnortar, and that it cost $6 per cu. yd. for the labor. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 291 

Returning ag'ain to the concrete, the stone was cobbles 
picked out of the hardpan excavated to make embankments. 
It was washed before crushing, anc. had to be gathered up 
from scattered piles, which accounts in part for the high 
cost. It was crushed with a 9 x 15 Farrel crusher operated 
by a 12-HP. engine. The crusher was rated at 125 tons a 
•day, but averaged only about 40 tons. The bin had a 
capacity of 30 cu. yds., divided into three compartments, one 
vfor stone less than 1^^ diameter, one for stone between 1% 
and 21/^ ins., and the third for stone over 2^/^ ins. which had 
to be recrushed. The stone had about 46% voids and 
weighed 95 lbs. per cu. ft. 

Cost of Lining a Reservoir at Canton, 111. — G. W. 
Chandler gives the cost of a small concrete reservoir at 
Canton, 111. Presumably the work was done by day labor, 
not by contract. The reservoir was built in the summer of 
1901. It is 100 X 80 ft., 13 ft. deep and holds 12 ft. of water. 
The bottom is concrete, 10 ins. thick, including a %An. coat 
of mortar. The footings of the side wall and the coping are 
of concrete. The concrete was 1:3%: 7%. Voids in the stone 
were 40%, in the clean sand 30%. The sand and cement 
were mixed dry, then shoveled into a pile with the stone, 
well wetted, shoveled over again and shoveled into barrows. 
One 95-lb. sack of cement contained 0.9 cu. ft. The %-in. 
mortar coat was l:2i/i, spread and worked smooth with a 
trowel. The concrete cost as follows, per cubic yard: 

0.857 cu. yd. stone, at $2.17 $1.86 

0.856 bbl. cement, at $2.50 2.14 

10.1 bu. sand (100 lbs. per bu.) at 5% cts. 58 

Labor (wages 19 cts. per hr.) 80 

Total $5.38 

The stone weighed 2,500 lbs. per cu. yd. 
The side walls built of paving brick (costing $6.50 per. 
M. delivered) were laid in 1:2^^ cement mortar. 

Cost of a Reservoir Floor, at Pittsburg, Pa. — ^Mr. 

Emile Low gives the following data: 

The floor of the Highland Ave. Reservoir at Pittsburg, Pa., 
was covered in 1884 to a depth of 5 ins. with concrete, laid 
on a clay puddle foundation. The concrete mortar was made 
of 1 bbl. natural cement to 2 bbls. sand, mixed to a thin 



292 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

grout in wooden boxes standing on legs. Five barrels oJf 
stone (sandstone) were spread on a platform of 2-in. plank, 
10 X 16 ft, and the grout was poured over it, the whole 
mass being then turned over three times with shoyels, then 
deposited to the depth of 5 ins. and rammed. The stone was 
quarried and hauled 20 miles by rail, then unloaded into 
small cars and hauled ^^ mile to the reservoir. The sand 
was obtained in the reservoir limits, and cost merely the 
work of excavation, or 1^ cts. per bushel. 
The following was the cost of two days' work: 

27 laborers, 2 days, at $1.25 $72.90 

1 foreman, 2 days, at $2.50 5.00 

Total, 101 cu. yds. at 77 cts $77.90 

During one month the labor cost was: 

Total cost. 

642 days, laborers at $1.35 $866.70 

17 *' water-boy, at 60 cts 10.20 

22 " foremen, at $2.50 55.00 

Total, 1,302 cu. yds. at 711/2 cts $931.90 

During another month 1,425 cu. yds. were laid at 95 cts. 
per cu. yd., wages being $1,25 a day. 

The average cost of the 7,680 cu. yds. of 1:2:5 concrete 

^^^* Percu. yd. 

Quarrying stone $ .45 

Transporting " 50 

Breaking " (2%-in. ring) 35 

1% bbl. natural cement 1.80 

8 bu. sand 10 

Water 05 

Labor (wages $1.25 a day), mixing and laying 75 

Incidentals .05 

Total $4.05 

The contract price was $6 per cu. yd. 

Cost of Lining a Reservoir. — Mr. G. L. Christian gives 
the following: In laying 3,000 cu. yds. of 1:3:6 concrete, 
6 ins. deep, over the bottom of a reservoir, the wages paid 
were: Foreman, $2.50; laborers, $1.35; and teams $4 a day 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 293 

The cost of blasting the rock is not included, but the cost 
of loading, hauling and crushing is included: 

Per cu. yd. 

Sand $ •37 

Natural cement 1.10 

Loading and hauling stone to crusher 25 

Labor at crusher, at $1.35 a day 20 

Rent of crusher 01 

Coal for crusher 05 

Hauling stone from crusher 15 

Foreman of concrete gang 05 

Laborers concreting, at $1.35 50 

Teams " at $4 08 



Total $2.76 

9% for supt, time-keeper, office help, etc 24 



Total $3.00 

The concrete was mixed very wet. 

Cost of Concrete^ Asphalt and Brick Reservoir 
Lining. — ^Mr. Arthur L. Adams gives the following data on 
the Astoria (Ore.) City Water-Works: The reservoir bot- 
tom is lined with 6 ins. of concrete (laid with expansion 
joints), %-in. of cement mortar, one coat of liquid asphalt, 
and one harder asphalt coat. The lining of the slopes is the 
same except that a layer of brick laid flat, after dipping each 
brick in hot asphalt, was laid on the concrete. The bricks 
were laid on an asphalt coating and given a final asphalt 
coat. The actual cost per sq. ft. was: 

Slop© Per sq. ft. Bottom 

6-ln. concrete $0.1187 6-ln concrete $0.1031 

Ist coat asphalt 0.0100 Cement mortar finish 0.0113 

Brick In asphalt 0.0889 1st coat asphalt 0.0077 

2d coat asphalt 0.0131 2d coat asphalt 0.0082 

Chinking crevices with as- 
phalt* 0.0030 

Ironing 0.0035 



Total $0.2372 Total $0.1303 

* These crevices developed near the top of the slope, due to sliding 
of the hrick slope. 

The detailed cost of this lining work was as follows: 

The concrete was composed of basalt rock, quarried and 



294 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

crushed near the work, of river gravel, sand and imported 
Portland cement. One cubic yard of -concrete contained 0.9 
cu. yd. stone, 0.5 cu. yd. gravel, 0.1 cu. yd. sand and 1 bbl. 
cement. There were 603 cu. yds. of concrete on slopes and 
678 cu. yds. on the bottom. The work was well managed, 
each man averaging 1.84 cu. yds. 'per 10-hr. day, mixed and 
placed on the slopes, and 2.35 cu. yds. on the hottom. The 
men were Italians. The rock was quarried and crushed and 
delivered at the work (800 ft. haul) for 95 cts. per cu. yd. 
Sand and gravel were bought at 86% cts. per cu. yd., and ce- 
ment at $2.45 per bbl. All mixing was done by hand. There 
were three gangs of mixers, 6 men in a gang, supplied with 
materials by 9 wheelbarrow men (5 on rock, 3 on gravel 
and sand and 1 on cement). The 18 mixers placed the con- 
crete for 6 men to rake and ram. Beside this force of 33 
men, there were: 1 helper at the cement, 1 man tending 
water, 1 man sprinkling concrete already laid, 1 water-boy 
and 1 foreman. The gravel, sand and cement were mixed 
dry, then mixed wet, and stone added; the concrete was then 
turned three times, and once more when deposited. On the 
slopes a rough finishing coat of mortar was applied by tak- 
ing a little mortar from the next batch. The concrete was 
mixed with very little water. By raking the coarse rock 
down the slopes and by using a straight edge before ram- 
ming, even slopes were secured. 

On the bottom the %-in. mortar (1:2) coat was applied by 
two finishers using smoothing trowels, and they were served 
by 4 men mixing and carrying the mortar. 

On the slopes the concrete was placed in sheets 10 ft. 
wide from top to bottom; and on the bottom it was laid in 
squares, 20 ft. on a side; 2 x 6-in. planks being used to hold 
the free sides ot the concrete. When a new square was 
laid adjoining an old square, the 2 x 6 pieces were removed, 
and replaced by a piece of V2 x 4-in. weather boarding. Two 
weeks later these i^-in. strips were removed so that the 
grooves could be run full of asphalt. The %-in. strips 
should be beveled and laid with the wide edge up, or they 
will be removed with difficulty. The labor cost of concreting 
was $1.07 per cu. yd. on the slopes and 67 cts. on the bottom, 
wages being 15 cts. an hour. 

Two grades of Alcatraz asphalt were used: the L and the 
XXX, or paving brand. The L grade is a natural liquid 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 295 

asphalt, and the XXX grade is the product of refining the 
natural rock asphalt with about 20% of the liquid as a flux; 
they are sold in barrels holding 400 lbs. No asphalt was 
placed on the concrete until it had been in place two weeks 
and was dry on the surface. On the bottom of the reservoir 
the first coat applied was the L grade, the second coat 
was the XXX grade. On the slopes none of the L grade was 
used, because of its tendency to creep; moreover, the harder 
asphalt v/hen at the proper temperature runs readily and 
fills all crevices. The only advantage of the L grade is that 
it will adhere to a damp surface where the XXX will not. 
For best results all work should be done in the dry sum- 
mer months. All dust must be carefully swept off the con- 
crete as it prevents bonding with the asphalt. The asphalt 
a.pplied with mops made of twine, was delivered in sheet- 
iron buckets by attendants who carried it from two melting 
kettles holding 3,000 lbs. each. 

The bricks used on the slopes were half vitrified and half 
common, due to inability to get the full number of vitrified 
bricks. They were submerged in a bucket of hot asphalt 
and placed on the slope with iron tongs; a common laborer, 
afiter a little practice, readily averaged 2,300 bricks laid in 
10 hrs. A push joint was made. To secure close joints and 
consequent economy in asphalt, the asphalt must be kept 
hot enough to run like water. 

The asphalt finishing coat followed the brick laying as 
closely as possible, to avoid delays due to rain-water stand- 
ing in open joints. The slope was ironed with hot irons to 
improve the appearance. Overheating of the irons is apt to 
injure the asphalt. During hot weather the brick slid on the 
slope somewhat by closing up thick joints laid in colder 
weather; but all motion ceased in a few weeks. The ad- 
vantage of asphalt lies in retarding the passage of water 
through brick or concrete; it does not exclude water, for an 
asphalt coated brick submerged in water will eventually 
absorb as much water as an uncoated brick. 

Cost of First Asphalt Coat on Concrete Slopes (29,637 sq. ft.) 

Total Cost per 

Labor : cost. sq. ft. 

Building sheds $5.00 $0.00017 

Spreading, 91 hours at 20 cts 18.20 0.00061 

Boiling, 91)^ " 15 cts 18.72 0.00046 

Helpers, 78 K " 15cts 11.02 0.00037 

Sweeping, 49)^ '* 15 cts 7.43 0.00025 



2y(5 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



Materials : 
Asphalt, 19.243 lbs. at $0.1225... . 

Fuel, 1 cord wood at $2. 50 

Hauling 9.6 tons asphalt at $0.47. 

Totals , 



Total 

cost. 

$235.73 

2.60 

4.50 


Cost per 

sq. ft. 

$0.00795 

0.00009 

0.00015 


$298.10 


$0.01005 



Cost of Asphalt Finishing Coat on Slopes (29,637 sq. ft.) 



Labor : 

Building sheds 

Spreading, 95X hours at 15 cts. .. 
Boiling, 7 3X 
Helpers, 144^ " 
Sweeping, 20 ** *' 

Foreman, 60 " 25cts... 

Materials : 
Asphalt, 25,230 lbs. at $0.01225. 

Fuel, 1 cord 

Hauling 12.6 tons at $0.47 

Totals 



Total 
cost 


Cost per 
sq. ft. 


$5.00 
14.36 
10.99 
21.68 
3.00 
15.00 


0.00017 
0.00049 
0.000S7 
0.00073 
0.00010 
0.00051 


309.07 
2.50 
5.92 


$0.01042 
0.00008 
0.00020 


$387.52 


$0.01307 



Cost of Ironing Asphalt Slope (29,637 sq. ft.) 



Labor; 

Ironers, 295.5 hours at 15 cts 

Heaters, 75 " " 

Helpers and sweeping, 343^ hrs. at 15 cts. 
Foreman, 49 J^ hours at 25 cts 

Materials : 

Irons, 20 at $1.50 

Fuel, 1 cord at $2.50 

Totals 



Total 
Cost 
$44.33 
11.25 
5.18 
12.37 



30.00 
2.50 

$105.63 



Cost per 
sq. tt. 
$0.00150 
0.00038 
0.00017 
0.00042 



0.00101 
0.00008 

$0.00356 



Cost of First Asphalt Coat on Concrete Bottom (34,454 sq ft.) 



Labor : 
Building sheds, 25 hrs. at 20 cts. 
Spreading, 38 " 20 cts. 

Boiling, 87 '* 15 cts. 

Helpers, 48 " 15 cts. 

Sweeping, 44 ** 15 cts. 

Materials : 
Asphalt, 18,490 lbs. at $0.01225.. 
Fuel, 1 cord 

Hauling, 9.25 tons at $0.47 

Totals 



Total 
cost 


Cost per 
sq. ft. 


$5.00 
7.60 
5.55 
6.45 
6.60 


$0.00015 
0.00022 
0.00016 
0.00019 
0.00019 


226.50 
2.50 
4.35 


0.00658 
0.00012 
0.00007 


15264.55 


$0.00768 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 



297 



Cost of Second Asphalt Coat on Bottom (34,454 sq. ft.) 

Total Cost per 

Labor : coit sq. ft. 

Building sHeds §5.00 $0.00015 

Spreading, 35 hrs. at 15 cts 5.25 0.00015 

Boiling, 80 " *• 4.50 0.00013 

Helpers, 62)4 ** '* 7.88 0.00023 

Sweeping, 44^ '* *' 6.68 0.00020 

Foreman, 17>^ ** 25 ots 4.38 0.00013 

]&Xaterials * 

Asphalt,*19,591 lbs. at $0.0122 5 239.99 0.00702 

Fuel, 1 cord at $2.50 2.50 0.00007 

Hauling, 9.8 tons at $0.47 4.61 0.00013 

Totals , $280.79 $0.00821 



Cost of Laying Brick on slopes (132,000 bricks dipped In Asphalt and laid 
hat; 29,637 sq. ft.). 

' ' Cost per 

M. 



Labor : 

Unloading brick from barge, 290 hrs. at 1 5 cts. ) 
" •* foreman, 22 " 25 cts. J 

Hauling and storing, 160 hrs. at 35 cts. and ) 
140 hrs. at 55 cts J 

Laying, 561 hrs. at 16 cts 

Attendance, 1,341 hrs. at 15 cts 

Boiling Asphalt, 220 hrs. at 15 cts 

Foreman, 96 hrs. at 25 cts 

Materials : 



Brick, 132 M at $7.00 

Asphalt, 93,372 lbs. at $0.01225 
Asphalt haul, 46.7 tons at $0.47. 



Total 
cost. 

$49.00 

152.43 

84.15 

301.15 

38.00 

24.00 

924.00 

1,143.81 

21.95 



$0.37122 

1.15473 

0.63750 
1.52387 
0.24500 
0.18180 

7.00000 
8.66516 
0.16628 



Totals. $2,633.49 $19.95055 

Cost of Fortification Work, at Tort Point, Cal.— In 
Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc, Vol. XIV., 1895, p. 239, George H. 
Mendell gives the following data: The work was the con- 
struction of fortifications at Fort Point, near San Francisco. 
The following experiments were made: 



t Obl. Portland cement measured loose. 

Water added 

Volume of stiff paste resulting! 

Moist sand added 

Water added 

Volume of mortar resulting , 

Gravel addedt 

Volume of loose concrete 

Volume of concrete tamped In place 



No. 1 


No. 2 


No. 3 


cu. ft. 


cu. ft. 


cu. ft 


4.42 


4.58 


4.5* 


2.00 


1.75 


1.92 


4.00 


8.80 


3.82 


10.12 


11.40 


13.50 


2.00 


2.50 


2.00 


10.12t 


12.30 


14.00 


36.50 


86.90 





45.25 


43.23 




37.50 







* This barrel measured 3K cu. ft. packed. 

t There is some doubt as to the accuracy ef this measurement, for it 
was recorded as 9.12 cu. ft., although it was probably 10.12. 

t This gravel in experiment No. 1, was in ^-in. size* down to bird- 
shot ; in experiment No. 2 it was the size of beans and smaller. There 
was a considerable percentage of what should be called sand in the 
gravel, probably 20%. 



298 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

In making the concrete all materials were measured loose 
and a barrel of cement was assumed to measure 4% cu. ft. 
The proportions of a batch were 1:3:8; the 8 being 8 x 4^^, 
or 36 cu. ft. of stone and gravel. In making a mass of con- 
crete 60 ft. long, 40 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, a careful record 
was kept of the cost of several weeks' work, measuring 

1,825 cu. yds. in place: 

Cost, per cu. yd. 

0.73 bbl. cement at $2.50 ?1.82 

83 cu. yd. stone 1.40 

0.26 '' " gravel .35 

0.31 " " sand .29 

Water .04 

Crushing stone,* mixing and placing concrete. .80 

Total $4.70 

* While It is not definitely stated I infer from what is said that the 
labor of crushing was about 15 cts. 

Wages were $2 per day of 8 hrs. for laborers, and $4 for 
foremen. The cost of timbering and incidental expenses is 
not included other than the pay of the men and the foreman. 
The total volume of all the loose materials, exclusivO' of the 
water, was 2,767 cu. yds. before mixing; after mixing, and 
measured in cars holding 20 cu. ft. each, the volume was 
2,433 cu. ft.; after being rammed in place the volume was 
1,825 cu. yds. The shrinkage of the concrete under the 
ramming was therefore 25%. A number of experiments 
were made on single carloads which Bhowed that a carload 
•of 20 cu. ft. of loose concrete made 15 to 15% cu. ft. com- 
pacted in place. 

The stone was quarried at Angel Island, and delivered on 
the wharf in sizes suitable for a Gates crusher, hauled in 
wagons to the crusher, which delivered it to the mixer, into 
which all the ingredients were fed from hoppers automat- 
ically. The mixer was of the cylindrical continuous type, 
and there was difficulty in delivering the materials to it 
automatically and in the desired proportions. The concrete 
was delivered by the mixer into cars holding 20 cu. ft. 
When a car was filled, the door of the mixer was closed for 
a minute, during which minute another car was put in place, 
the concrete in the meantime accumulating in the mixer. 
^The cars were pushed by men to the place of deposit^ a 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 299 

variable distance of 300 to 600 ft, and discharged through a 
trestle having an extreme height of 30 ft, gradually dimin- 
ishing to 4 ft. The concrete was then shoveled into wheel- 
barrows and wheeled 20 to 40 ft 

During the month of Aug., 1892, concrete was mixed by 
hand hy a gang of 20 men under 1 foreman. The average 8- 
hr. output was 45 cu. yds. of concrete at a cost of ?1 per cu. 
yd. for mixing and placing, wages being $2 a day. A batch 
consisted of 4 bbls. of cement and 144 cu. ft of gravel and 
stone, giving 144 cu. ft. of concrete. The materials were 
piled conveniently around the mixing platform. The stone 
and gravel were delivered in barrows and spread to an even 
thickness on the platform. Upon this the sand was wheeled 
and spread with a straight edge. The cement, also leveled, 
formed the top layer. Water was added in the turning. 
The materials were turned twice with shovels, being well 
dispersed in turning. A third turning resulted from shovel- 
ing the concrete into wheelbarrows, and a fourth turning in 
distributing the concrete. There was no ascent and the 
distances were short in wheeling the concrete, and the men 
were a picked lot. 

Cost of Fortification Work.— Mr. L. R. Grahill is au- 
thority for the following cost data: The work was upon 
fortifications built in 1899 for the U. S. Government, and 
was done hy contract, working 8 hrs. per day. The follow- 
ing is the average for 9,000 cu. yds.: 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 
6 laborers wheeling materials to board.. $7.50 ? .16 

8 ** mixing 10.00 .21 

8 " wheeling away ... 10.00 .21 

6 " placing and ramming 7.50 .16 

1 pumpman 1.25 .02 

1 water-boy 1.00 .02 

1 foreman 2.00 .04 

Total, 48 cu. yds. a day $39.25 $ .82 

Each batch contained % cu. yd. of 1:2:2:3 concrete, and 
■was turned four times. 

The cost of mixing 4,000 cu. yds. in a machine mixer by 
day labor (not by contract) was as follows: 



300 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 

32 laborers $40.00 $ .34 

1 pumpman 1.25 .01 

1 teamster and horse 2.00 .02 

2 water-boys 2.00 .02 

1 engineman 1.70 .02 

1 derrick tender 1.50 .01 

1 fireman 1.50 .01 

1 foreman 2.88 .03 

Fuel (cement barrels, largely) 1.25 .01 

Total, 118 cu. yds. per day $54.08 $ .47 

The average 8-hr. day's work was 168 batches of 0.7 cu. yd. 
each. The best day's work was 200 batches. Seven revolu- 
tions of the 4-ft. cubical mixer were sufiicient. A 12-HP. 
engine operated the mixer and served also to hoist the 
material cars up the incline to the mixer. These cars were 
loaded through trap doors in a bin containing the materials, 
then the cement was placed upon the load. The material 
cars moved up one incline, dumped, and passed down an- 
other incline on the opposite side. The concrete was dumped 
into an iron bucket resting on a car, hauled to one of the 
two boom derricks. These derricks had 80-ft, booms and 
were swung by bull-wheels. This plant cost about $5,000. 
The concrete was rammed in 6-in. layers in all cases; and 
it was found advisable to have one rammer to every 20 
batches deposited per day, in addition to the spreaders. 

Cost of Concrete Breakwater, Buffalo, N. Y.— <Mr. 

Emile Low gives the following data on the cost of making 
concrete by contract for the Buffalo Breakwater, in 1902: 
A 5-ft. cubical mixer was mounted on a scow and run by a 
9 X 12-in. horizontal engine. The concrete was 1:2:1:4 
cement, sand, gravel and stone. The voids in the sand and 
gravel were 27%, in the unscreened limestone, 39%. A bag 
of cement was assumed to be 0.9 cu. ft. The materials were 
stored in canal boats alongside. The sand was loaded by 3 
shovelers into wheelbarrows holding 3.6 cu. ft. each, and 
wheeled in tandem to a steel charging bucket. Two more 
barrows, each holding 2.7 cu. ft. of gravel, were loaded and 
also dumped into the charging bucket; then 6 bags of cement 
(1% bbls.) were emptied into the bucket. Another bucket 



C 01^ CRETE CONSTRUCTION. SOI 

was loaded with 21.6 cu. ft. of stone by 8 shovelers. These 
two buckets were hoisted by a derricli, in rapid succession, 
and dumped into the mixer. The dump man also attended 
to supplying water. A charging man started the mixer. 
The concrete was dumped from the mixer into a skip on a 
car below, by 2 men who pushed the car out where another 
derrick on the mixer scow hoisted it to the wall. There 
were 2 tagmen on each derrick to swing the booms, one 
paying out a tag rope while the other hauled in. A parapet 
wall, containing 841 cu. yds., was built in 46 hrs. actual 
work, 18.2 cu. yds. being placed per hour, each batch con- 
taining 1.07 cu. yds. of rammed concrete. A parapet deck, 
containing 1,720 cu. yds., was built in 88 hrs., or 19% cu. yds. 
per hr., each hatch being 1.08 cu. yd. The labor cost of 
making this concrete (common labor being $1.75 per 10 hrs.) 

was as follows: _ Concrete , 

Cost, per Cost, per 
Loading gang: 10-hr. day. cu. yd. 

1 assistant foreman $2.00 $0,011 

3 cement handlers 5.25 0.029' 

3 sand shovelers 5.25 0.029 

2 gravel '* 3.50 0.020 

8 stone " 14,00 0.076 

1 hooker-on 1.75 0.010 

Mixer gang: 

1 dumpman 1.75 0.010 

1 charging man 1.75 0.010 

2 car men 3.50 0.020 

2 engine men, at $3.25 6.50 0.035 

4 tag men, at $2.00 8.00 0.044 

1 fireman 2.00 0.011 

Wall gang: 

1 signalman 1.75 0.010 

1 dumper 1.75 0.010 

6 shovelers, at $2.00 12.00 0.065 

4 rammers 7.00 0.038 

1 foreman 4.00 0.022 

Total (182 cu. yds. per day) $81.75 $0,450 

This cost of 45 cts. per cu. yd. does not include fuel, forms 
or plant rental. 



302 HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. 

Cost o£ Concrete Locks, Coosa River, Ala. — Mr, 

Charles Firth, gives the following on the concrete 
locks on the Coosa River, Ala. Lock No. 31 has a length of 
322 ft. between hollow quoins and a length of 420 ft. over 
all, with a width of 52 ft in the clear. The lock walls are 
S4.7 ft. high and 16 ft. thick at the base. The total quantity 
of concrete was 20,000 cu. yds., requiring 21,500 bbls. of ce- 
ment, half Atlas and half Alsen's. It was mixed l:3:5i^ the 
stone being crushed mica-schist. Two mechanical 4-ft. cube 
mixers were used, being driven by a 10 x 16 engine. 
Each batch consisted of 3 cu. ft. cement, 9 cu. ft. sand and 
16% cu. ft. stone, and was turned 4 times before and 6 times 
after adding the water, at a speed not exceeding 8 revolu- 
tions per minute. The top floor of the mixing house had a 
storage capacity of 2,000 bbls. of cement. The sand and 
stone were delivered in side dump-cars. The concrete was 
delivered into bottom-dump cars. The average output of 
these two mixers was 200 cu. yds. in 8 hrs., or 100 cu. yds. 
per mixer, but it was limited by the means of placing the 
concrete. Each batch of concrete measured 24 cu. ft. in 
the car, but it shrank 20% when rammed in place, so that 
it required 34 cu. ft. of concrete in the cars to make 1 cu. 
yd. in place. The concrete was mixed quite dry and rammed 
in 6 to 8-in. layers, using 30-lb. iron rammers having sl 
square face 6 ins. on a side. On all exposed surfaces a 1:3 
mortar was placed as the work progressed, making a thick- 
ness of 6 ins. of mortar. To do this 2 x 12-in. planks were 
placed 4 ins. away from the forms, being kept at that dis- 
tance by 2 X 4-in. strips of wood. After the backing concrete 
was in place and partly rammed, these planks were re- 
moved and the 6-in. space filled with mortar. The walls 
were carried up in lifts, each lift being completed all around 
the dock before the next was commenced. The first lift was 
10.7 ft. high; each succeeding lift was 6 ft, except the last 
which was 4.5 ft., exclusive of the 18-in. coping. The coping 
was 5 ft. wide and made in separate blocks 3 ft. long, which 
were placed after the walls were completed. The coping 
was 1:2:3 concrete, faced with 1:1 mortar, and was cast in 
blocks face down, its edges being rounded to a 3-in. radius. 
The sides of the molds for these blocks were removed 3 
days after making, and 10 days later the blocks were stacked 
away. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 203 

In building the forms 6 x 8-in. posts 24 ft. long were set 
up on the inside of the lock in line, 5 ft. 7 ins. apart; and a 
similar row of posts 12 ft. long was set up outside of the lock. 
The posts were capped with 6 x 8-in. caps which supported 
the track stringers for the concrete cars. Each line of posts 
was sheeted with 3 x 10-in. plank dressed on all sides, and 
the posts were well braced with inclined struts. After the 
first lift was completed, the back row of posts was lifted 
onto the offset left on the back of the wall by the reduced 
width of the next lift; but the long posts on the front face 
were not moved, the caps being simply unbolted from them 
and fastened near the top of the posts. The sheeting plank 
was of course moved up. No tie bolts were built into the 
concrete wall, which made the bracing of the forms rather 
elaborate as the wall grew higher. 

The bottom-dump concrete cars were dumped onto 
wooden platforms inside the forms, as it was found that 
even a slight drop caused the larger stones to separate and 
roll to the outer edges. These stones were shoveled back 
into the pile, and then the concrete was placed with shovels. 
The doors of the cars were hung at the sides, and upon 
dumping they would strike the stringers carrying the track, 
thus jarring the forms and frequently throwing them out of 
line. A better method would have been to have hinged the 
doors at each end of the car. It was found advisable to have 
plenty of head room at the end of each lift, otherwise the 
spreading and ramming were not properly done. During the 
year ending June, 1895, there were only 90 days when work 
was carried on uninterrupted by floods. The total quantity 
of concrete placed that year was 8,710 cu. yds., the work be- 
ing done by day laborers for the Government (not by con- 
tract). Negroes at $1 per 8-hr. day were employed. The 
cost per cubic yard of l:3:5i/^ concrete was as follows: 

1 bbl. cement ?2.48 

0.88 cu. yd. stone, at $0.76 67 

0.36 " " sand " 0.34 12 

Mixing, placing and ramming 88 

Staging and forms 42 

Total, per cu. yd $4.57 

Had wages been $1.50 per day the cost would have been 
$1.32 per cu yd. instead of 88 cts. for mixing. 



204 BAVDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Cost of Concrete Locks, I. & M. Canal. — Mr. J. W. 

Woermann gives the following data relating to the building 
ot concrete locks for the Illinois and Mississippi Canal: The 
work was done in 1892 to 1894 by day labor for the Govern- 
ment, the working day being 8 hrs. long. The stone was a 
flinty limestone without bed, or at best in thin irregular 
strata unfit for even good rubble masonry. In addition to 
the concrete locks there were several concrete abutments 
for two timber dams, and these will be described first. 

Abutments: The forms for the first two abutments were 
erected in sections, alternate isections being erected and 
filled with concrete. When the concrete had set, the forms 
were removed and the forms for the intermediate sections 
were erected and braced against the concrete already in 
place. It was found impossible to secure good alinement of 
the concrete faces in this way, so the forms for subsequent 
work were erected all at once. The two abutments on Carr's 
Island were L-shaped, the side next to the river being 40 ft. , 
long, and the side extending into the earth 20 ft. long. The 
top thickness was 3 ft., the front was vertical, the base had 
a thickness equal to 0.4 the height of the wall, the back of 
the wall being stepped. E'ach dam abutment was built in 
four sections, each of which contained 30 cu. yds., which 
constituted an 8-hr. day's work for a gang of 26 men dis- 
tributed as follows: -r^ ^ ^^ 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 

2 handling cement and measuring sand. $3.00 $ .10 

3 filling barrows with gravel and stone. . 4.50 .15 

8 mixing with shovels 12.00 .40 

2 shoveling concrete into barrows 3.Q0 .10 

5 wheeling concrete to forms 7.50 .25 

1 spreading concrete 1.50 ,05 

5 tamping concrete 7.50 .25 

Totals ?39.00 ?1.30 

Cost of 254 cu. yds. of concrete in two abutments on Carr's 
Island: 

Per cu. yd. 

1.65 bbls. of Portland (Germania) cement ?5.60 

0.5 cu. yd. crushed stone 2.07 

0.24 " " gravel 59 

0.53 " " sand 24 



CONCRETE COySTRUCTlON, 305 

Lumber for forms, and warehouse and platforms 

(charging i^ of first cost of, $18 per M) $ .55 

Carpenter work* ($9 per M) 1.10 

Mixing and placing concrete 1.47 

20% of first cost of plant 31 

Engineering and miscellanies 31 

Total $12.24 

It will be noted that the amount of cement, 1.65 bbls. per 
•cu. yd., as above given, was exceedingly great. This was 
due to facing the abutments with a 1:2 mortar 8 ins. thick! 
The body of the wall was made of 1 part cement, 2 parts 
sand, 2 parts gravel, and 2 parts broken stone. The cement 
was measured loose, one barrel of packed cement (Alsen's) 
containing 3.6 cu. ft. made 4.5 cu. ft. of loose cement. A 
barrel of cement weighed 395 lbs. gross, or 370 lbs. net. The 
concrete was mixed quite dry and well rammed, the ram- 
ming alone costing nearly 30 cts. per cu. yd. The cost of 
mixing was high, but this is to be expected where men are 
working by the day for the Government. The sand and ce- 
ment were turned over 3 times with shovels and .spread out; 
then gravel was spread over, and finally the stone; the 
mass was turned over at least 4 times with shovels, the last 
turn landing it in the wheelbarrow. The forms consisted of 
2 X 8-in. studs placed upright, 2 ft. between centers, and 
faced with 2 x 8-in. plank dressed on both sides. Braces of 
4 X 6-in. stuff were used. 

Locks: The concrete for the locks was mixed by a 
mechanical mixing plant, shown in Fig. 14. A queen truss 
was supported by two A-frames, one of the frames having 
legs 30 ft. long, the other having legs 38 ft. long. A pit was 
dug under the truss, and tracks laid on each side of the pit 
so that dump cars could readily deliver materials into a 
charging box placed in the pit. The charging box was 3 ft. 
8 ins. square inside and 3 ft. deep, holding 40 cu. ft., and was 
raised by a l^-in. steel cable running through a pair of 
double blocks. The slope of the lower chord of the truss 
was such that the cable hoisted the bucket and carried it 
along the truss without the use of any latching devices. 



* Carpenters received ljl)2.25 a day and laborers $1.50; there was one 
aborer to two carpenters. 



306 



HANDBOOK OP COST DATA. 




CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 307 

This, it should be noted, is a very simple and ingenious 
hoisting and conveying apparatus. A 15-HiP. portable en- 
gine operated the hoist with one pulley, and its other pulley 
operated the friction clutch driving the 4-ft. cubical concrete 
mixer. Above the mixer was a hopper, and under the mixer 
the track for the dump cars that carried the concrete to the 
lock walls. It was found necessary to lower the hopper 6 
inches lower than shown so as to obviate spilling the 
materials. It was also found desirable to reduce the dis- 
tance between the mixer and the lower platform by 9 ins., 
and to place diagonal timber braces under the timbers sup- 
porting the axles of the mixer. Nine revolutions of the 
mixer secured a perfect mixture of the concrete. It was 
found that the mixer did not mix the 1:2 mortar for the 
facing satisfactorily, so it was mixed with shovels. The 
belt hoist, trolley, charging box, and cubical mixer, with the 
necessary shafting, gearing, etc., cost $706 delivered, and the 
timber, framing and erection cost $300 more. The frame- 
work was put together with bolts so as to be readily moved 
from site to site. 

The crushing plant consisted of a No. 2 Gates crusher, de- 
livering to a bucket belt elevator. The broken stone was 
hauled in dump cars, into which the proper amounts of 
sand and cement were also loaded. The cars delivered the 
materials into the charging box as above described. The 
concrete was hauled over a trestle in cars to the forms. 

The average force engaged in operating the plant, not 
including the men engaged in rock crushing, was as fol- 
lows on the first lock built, namely, the "guard lock": 

Per cent. 

Men. of cost. 

Handling cement 3 5.26 

Filling and pushing sand car 5 8.77 

stone car 9 15.79 

Measuring water 1 1.75 

Dumping bucket on top platform 3 5.26 

Opening and closing door of mixer 1 1.75 

Operating friction clutch 1 1.76 

Attending concrete cars under mixer 1 1.76 

Dumping cars at forms 2 3.51 

Spreading concrete in forms 3 5.26 

Tamping " " " 10 17.54 



308 



BAlslDBOOK OF CO^.T DATA, 



Men. 

Mixing mortar for facing (with shovels) 6 

Finishing top of wall 2 

Hauling concrete cars (with 1 horse) 1 

Engineman operating hoist 1 

" " engine 1 

F''oreraan 1 

General foreman 1 

Totals 52 



Per cent, 
of cost. 
10.53 
3.51 
3.51 
3.51 
3.51 
8.51 
3.51 



100.00 



The percentage of total cost is calculated upon the as- 
sumption that each laborer received one half as much wages 
as each engineman, foreman, and driver with horse, per 
8 hrs., which would make the total daily wages equivalent 




FIG. 15. 



to the wages of 57 men. Wages of common laborers were 
$1.50 a day. The output of this force per 8-hr. day was 60 
batches of concrete and 40 batches of facing mortar, re- 
quiring in all 100 bbls. of cement. The concrete consisted of 
1 bbl. Alsen's cement (4.5 cu. ft. measured loose), 10 cu. ft. 
sand, and 20 cu. ft. of broken stone. It is probable that 
this mixture did not yield more than 0.85 cu. yd. of rammed 
concrete per batch. The 1:2 mortar was 1 bbl. cement to 
9 cu. ft. sand, and probably one batch did not much exceed 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 309 

0.33 cu. yd. If these assumptions are correct the daily out- 
put was about 51 cu. yds. of concrete mixed in the mixer 
beside 13 cu. yds. of facing mortar mixed by hand — a very 
poor showing considering the excellent plant and large num- 
ber of men. The 9 men filling and pushing the stone cars 
must have shoveled the stone off the ground, for otherwise, 
with a comparatively short haul, one or two men and a 
horse could have delivered all the stone from bins. As it 
was, each of the 9 men handled less than 6 cu. yds. per day! 
Note also that each of the cement men handled only 33 bbls., 
or 5i/l» cu. yds., of cement per day. Note the high cost of 
ramming the concrete. 

There were 2,213 cu. yds. of concrete in the lock walls, and 
1,550 cu. yds. in culverts, foundations, etc., requiring 1.4 
bbls. cement per cu. yd. The cost of mixing and placing 
was $1.77 per cu. yd. There were 145,000 ft. B. M. pine tim- 
ber used in forms, trestles, etc. (Pig. 15), the first cost of 
which was $18 per M., one-quarter of which was charged up 
to this lock, as the lumber was used for four locks. 

The cost of building lock No. 36, containing 2,140 cu. yds. 
of concrete (1,820 cu. yds. of which was in the lock walls) 
was as follows; 

Total Cost per Percent, 

cost. cu. yd. of cost 

3,010bbls.Alsen*s cement, at $3.02.... $9,057 $4.23 47% 

1,377 cu. yds. broken stone, at $1.37.. . 1,922 0.90 10 

393 " screened pebbles, at $0.90 354 0.17) 

459 «• gravel, at $0.67 310 0.15 f ^ 

500 " sand, at$1.78 889 0.42 5 

150,000 ft. B. M. timber for forms an^' 
warehouse (charging one-fourth the 

cost of $16 per iVl) 600 0.28 3 

Carpenter work on forms, trestles, etc. 

($10per M) 1,472 0.68 8 

Fuel, lights, repairs, etc 253 0.11 1 

Mixing and placing concrete 3,897 1.82 20 

20% of cost of plant 650 0.80 3 

Total $19,404 $9.06 100% 

On lock No. 37, which had walls 25 ft. high, 4 ft. wide at 
the top and 11 ft. wide at the bottom (uniformly battered on 
the back), a gang of 58 men on each shift averaged 65 
batches of concrete and 31 batches of face mortar, or 86.2 
cu. yds. of wall per 8-hr. day. There were 3,767 cu. yds. 
in this work, and 180,000 ft. B. M. of timber were used in 
the forms, trestles, etc. The work of erecting and taking 
down this timber cost $14 per M. The labor of mixing and 



310 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

placing the concrete cost $1.64 per eu. yd., including engi- 
neering. It is not clear why this item of cost should have 
been much exceeding $1 per cu. yd., for, as above stated, 58 
men averaged 86 cu. yds. a day. 

Each batch of concrete contained 5 1/7 cu. ft. of Alsen's 
cement (measured loose), 16 cu. ft. of a mixture of sand and 
gravel, and 20 cu. ft. of broken stone. This batch made ex- 
actly 1 cu. yd. measured in the wall. Three 8-hr. shifts were 
worked each 24-hr. day, with 65 men in each shift. The or- 
ganization of each gang was the same as given on page 307, 
except that the force of tampers was doubled, as it had been 
found that they had limited the daily output on previous 
work. The average output per shift was 76 batches of con- 
crete and 35 batches of face mortar, the best shift's record 
being 96 batches of concrete and 22 batches of face mortar. 
One wall containing 973 cu. yds. was built in 10 shifts, or 
97.3 cu. yds. per shift. The two lock walls were each 238 ft. 
long, 4 ft. wide on top, 7% ft. wide at the base, and 16 ft. 
high, and were built in sections 22 ft. long. The forms. Fig. 
15, were made of pine, the uprights being 8 x 10-in., 
spaced 4 ft. center to center, and were sheeted with 4-in. 
dressed pine on the face, and 2-in. rough pine on the back 
of the walls. The uprights were braced by 6 x 8-in. inclined 
braces. A trestle was provided for concrete dump-cars to 
run upon, as shown. It will be noted that the timbering 
throughout was exceedingly heavy. The reason for this is 
said to have been that lighter forms had yielded in places; 
and that, in view of the shocks that would occur in dump- 
ing the concrete from cars, it was not deemed advisable to 
use light forms. However, I have seen concrete dumped in- 
to light forms (2-in. plank and 4 x 6-in. uprights) from 
ears at much greater heights that in this lock work, yet 
without injury to the forms. The secret lies in proper brac- 
ing and fastening. The use of jnore than 70 ft. B. M. of 
timber for each cubic yard of concrete in heavy work like 
this shows great extravagance. In fact, there is scarcely an 
item, except the stone and sand, that was not costlier than 
it would have been by contract work. The cement used 
amounted to 1.4 bbl. per cu. yd. of wall. This excessive 
amount was due to facing the walls with a 1:2 mortar, 8 ins. 
thick, and costing $16 per cu. yd. Mortar 2 ins. thick would 
have served just as well. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 311 

Since the foregoing was written I have received from Mr. 
Woermann the following interesting data which show how 
the cost of more recent lock work has heen reduced. Mr. 
Woermann says: 

''If any criticism was to be made of the concrete masonry 
erected in 1893 and 1894, it would probably be to the effect 
that it was too expensive. The cost of -the masonry 
erected during those two seasons was $8.00 to $9.00 
per cubic yard. Our records showed that about 
45% of this cost was for Portland cement alone, and, more- 
over, that 40% of the total cement used at a lock was placed 
in the 8-in. facing and 5-in. coping. So in the seven locks 
erected in 1895 on the eastern section, the facing was re- 
duced to 3 ins. and the proportions changed from 1:2 to 
1:21/2. 

'In 1898 this cost received another severe cut, and Major 
Marshall's instructions stated that the facing should not 
exceed ly2 ins. in thickness nor be less than %-in., while the 
layer of fine material on top of the coping was to be only 
sufficient to cover the stone and gravel. The amount of sand 
was again increased so that the proportions were 1:3. 

''The cost of the Portland cement concrete was likewise 
cheapened by inoreasing the amount of aggregates. On the 
earlier work the proportions were 1:2:2:3, while on the 
work in 1898 the proportions were 1:4:4. The cost of the 
walls was further cheapened by using Utica cement in the 
lower steps of the wall, with 2 ft. of Portland cement con- 
crete on the face. The proportions used in the Utica cement 
concrete were l:2i^:2%. This lower step is one-third of the 
height, or about 7 ft. 

"The forms were of the same character as those used on 
the first locks, except that for lining the inner face, 3 x 10-in. 
hard pine planks were substituted for the 4 x 8-in. white 
pine. The hard pine was damaged less by the continuous 
handling, and the cost was practically the same. There was 
also an important change made in the manner of fastening 
the plank to the 8 x 10-in. posts. A strip 1% ins. square was 
thoroughly nailed to each post, once for all, with 20d. spikes, 
and the planking was then nailed from the outside, as 
shown in Pig. 16. This kept the face of the plank in a per- 
fectly smooth condition, and prevented the formation of the 
little knobs on the face of the concrete which represented all 



312 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



the old nail holes. This style of foTming was also easier to 
take apart after the setting of the concrete. Rough pine 
planks, 2 x 12-in., were used for the back of the form, the 
same as before. 

*'In order to keep ahead of the concrete force it was 
necessary to use two gangs of carpenters, erecting the forms 
for the next two locks. Each gang consisted of about 20 
carpenters (at $2.25) and 10 helpers (at $1.50); but men were 
transferred from one to the other, according to the stage of 
completion of the two locks. In addition to these two gangs, 
two carpenters were on duty with each concrete shift to put 
in the steps in the back of the forms. Sufficient lumher was 
required for the forms for three complete locks, and 14 locks 
(Nos. 8 to 21) were built. 

*'The same type of mixer has been used as on the earlier 



^^ 



5x/^^; 



">^-8h^ 



1^" 



FIG. 16. 

work at Milan, namely, a 4-ft. cubical steel box mounted on 
coTners diagonally opposite. On account of the greater 
number of locks to be built on the eastern section, however, 
two mixers were found necessary, so that while the concrete 
force was at work at one lock, the carpenters and helpers 
were erecting the mixer at the next lock. The facing was 
mixed by hand. After turning over the dry cement and 
sand at least twice with shovels, the mixture was then cast 
through a No. 5 sieve, after which the water was incor- 
porated slowly by the use of a sprinkling can so as to avoid 
washing. The secret of good concrete, after the selection of 
good materials, is thorough mixing and hard tamping. 
Each batch of concrete, consisting of about 1.2 cu. yds. in 
place, was turned in the mixer for not less than 2 mins. at 
the rate of 9 revolutions per minute. The amount of tamp- 
ing is indicated by the fact that about 16 men cut of 72 on 
each shift did nothing but tamp. The rammers used were 
6 ins. square and weighed 33 lbs. The bottom of the rammer 
consisted of three ridges, each 1-in. in height, so as to make 
more bond between the successive layers. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 313 

"On the eastern section the top of the lock walls was 
higher above the ground, as a rule, than at the Milan locks, 
and the cars were run up an incline with a small hoisting 
engine. A 15-HP. portable engine and boiler operated the 
^bucket hoist from one pulley, the mixer from the other 
pulley, and also furnished steam for the hoist which pulled 
the cars up the incline. The incline made an angle of about 
30° with the ground. The practice of carrying on two sec- 
tions at once was continued the same as on the western 
section. Eiach main wall was systematically divided into 
11 sections, making each section about 20 ft. long. The cor- 
ners of the coping were dressed to a quadrant of about 3 ins. 
radius with a round trowel like those used on cement walks. 
In fact, the whole method of finishing the coping was the 
same as is used on concrete walks. The mortar was- put on 
rather wet and then allowed to stand for about 20 mins. be- 
fore finishing. This allowed the water to come to the sur- 
face and prevented the formation of the fine water cracks 
which are sometimes seen on concrete work. After its final 
set the coping was covered with several inches of fine gravel 
which was kept wet for at least a week. 

"The last concrete laid during the season was in Novem- 
ber, on Lock No. 21, and Aqueducts Nos. 2 and 3. Portions 
of these structures were built when the temperature was 
below freezing. The water was warmed to about 60 or 70° 
Fahr., by discharging exhaust steam into the tank. 
Salt was used only in the facing, simply sufficient to make 
the water taste saline. The maximum amount used on the 
coldest night when the temperature was about 20° Pahr. 
was 11/2%. 

The concrete force on each shift was as follows: 

Men. 

Filling and pushing stone car 10 

Filling and pushing gravel car 8 

Measuring cement 3 

Measuring water and cleaning bucket 2 

Dumping bucket on top platform 2 

Operating mixer 2 

Loading concrete cars 1 

Pushing and dumping cars on forms 3 

Switchmen on forms 2 

Spreading concrete in forms 12 



314 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Meiv 

Tamping concrete in forms 16 

Mixing facing 3 

Water-boys 2 

Total laborers 66 

Operating hoists 2 

Finishing coping 2 

Fireman 1 

Sub-overseers 2 

Overseer 1 

Total force 74 

'The cost of material and labor at Lock No. 15 (10 ft. lift), 
which contains 2,558 cu. yds. of concrete, was as follows: 

Materials: Percu. yd. 

0.56 bbl. Port, cement (0.96 per cu. yd) ... $1.42 

0.64 " Utica " (158 " " ** ) .30 

0.58 cu.. yd. stone 1.15 

0.60 " " gravel .52 

14 ft. B. M. lumber* at $15 per M .21 

0.6 lb. spikes 01 

Coal (10 tons in all, at $1,70) 01 

0.35 gal. kerosene. 03 

Total materials $3.65 

Labor: 

Erecting forms ($7 per M) .... , 45 

Removing ** ($2 per M.) .13 

Erecting and removing mixer ($161) .06 

Loading and unloading materials at yards and 

lock sites 23 

Track laying ($86) 03 

Train service (narrow gage road) .09 

Delivering materials to mixer 28 

Mixing concrete .11 

Depositing *' .21 

Tamping ** 21 

* The lumber was used nearly five times, which accounts for its low 
cost per cu. yd. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 315 

Per cu. yd. 
Mix., dep. and tamping, 69 cu. yds. face mor- 
tar ($160) $0.23 

General construction ($553) 22 

Total labor $2.25 

"There were 1,430 cu. yds. of Portland cement concrete, 

69 cu. yds. of Portland cement mortar facing, and 1,059 cu. 

yds. of Utica cement concrete. The Portland concrete cost 

$6.43 per cu. yd.; the Utica concrete, $4.77 per cu. yd. The 

following is the cost of labor on Lock No. 20 (11 ft. lift.; 

2,750 cu. yds.): ^ 

Per cu. yd. 

Erecting forms ($7 per M.) $ .434 

Removing ** ($1.70 per M.) 113 

Erecting and removing mixer ($151) 058 

Loading and unloading at yards, lock sites, etc. . .614 

Tracks .024 

Train service (narrow gage) 016 

Pumping , 114 

Delivering material to mixer 288 

Mixing concrete 134 

Depositing concrete , 205 

Tamping concrete. , 192 

Mix., dep. and tamping, 85 cu. yds. face mortar. . .071 

General construction 246 

Total $2,509 

Labor Cost of Retaining Walls. — In canal excavation, 
in subway work in cities, and the like, it is often necessary 
to dig trenches and build retaining walls in the trenches be- 
fore excavating the core of earth between the walls. The 
following example of this class of work is taken from some 
records that I have: A Smith mixer was used, the concrete 
being delivered where wanted by a Lambert cableway of 400 
ft. span. The broken stone and sand were delivered near 
the work in hopper-bottom cars which were dumped through 
a trestle onto a plank floor. Men loaded the material into 
one-horse dump carts which hauled it 900 ft. to the mixer 
platform. This platform was 24 x 24 ft. square, and 5 ft. 
high, with a planked approach 40 ft. long and contained 
7,500 ft. B. M. The stone and sand were dumped at the 



316 HANDBOOK OF COa^T DATA. 

mouth of the mixer and shoveled in by 4 men. Eight men, 
working in pairs, loaded the broken stone into the carts, and 
2 men loaded the sand. Each cart was loaded with about 70 
shovelfuls of stone on top of which 35 shovelfuls of sand 
were thrown. It took 3 to 5 mins. to load on the stone and 1 
min. to load the sand. The carts traveled very slowly, about 
150 ft. a minute — in fact, all the men on the job, including 
the cart drivers, were slow. After mixing, the concrete was 
dumped into iron buckets holding 14 cu. ft. water measure, 
making about i/^ cu, yd. in a batch. The buckets were 
hooked on to the cableway and conveyed where wanted in 
the wall. Steam for running the mixer was taken from the 
same boiler that supplied the cableway engine. The aver- 
age output of this plant was 100 cu. yds. of concrete per 
10-hr. day, although on many days the output was 125 cu. 
yds., or 250 batches. The cost of mixing and placing was 
as follows, on a basis of 100 cu. yds. per day: 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 

8 men loading stone into carts $12.00 $ .12 

2 '' '' sand " " 3.00 .03 

1 cart hauling cement 3.00 .03 

8 carts " stone and sand 24.00 .24 

4 men loading mixer 6.00 .06 

1 man dumping mixer 1.50 .01 

2 men handling buckets at mixer 3.00 .03 

6 " dumping buckets and ramming.. 9.00 .09 

12 " making forms at $2.50 30.00 .30 

1 cable engineman 3.00 .03 

1 fireman 2.00 .02 

1 foreman 6.00 .06 

1 water-boy 1.00 .01 

1 ton coal for cableway and mixer 4.00 .04 

Total $107.50 $1.07 

In addition to this cost of $1.07 per cu. yd. there was the 
cost of moving the whole plant for every 350 ft. of wall. 
This required 2 days, at a cost of $100, and as there were 
about 1,000 cu. yds. of concrete in 350 ft. of wall 16 ft. high, 
the cost of moving the plant was 10 cts. per cu. yd. of con- 
crete, bringing the total cost of mixing and placing up to 
87 cts. per cu. yd. As above stated, the whole gang was 
slow. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 317 

The labor cost of making the forms was high, for such 
simple and heavy Work, costing $10 per M. of lumber placed 
each day. The forms were 2-in. sheeting plank held by 
4 X 6-in. upright studs 2i/^ ft. apart, which were braced 
against the sides of the trench. The face of the forms was 
dressed lumber and all cracks were carefully puttied and 
sandpapered. 

The above costs relate only to the massive part of the wall 
and not the cost of putting in the facing mortar, which was 
excessively high. The face mortar was 2 ins. thick, and 
about ZV2 cu. yds. of it were placed each day with a force 
of 8 men! Two of these men mixed the mortar, 2 men 
wheeled it in barrows to the wall, 2 men lowered it in buck- 
ets, and 2 men put it in place on the face of the wall. If we 
distribute this labor cost on the face mortar over the 100 cu. 
yds. of concrete laid each day, we have another 12 cts. per 
cu. yd.; but a better way is to regard this work as a separate 
item, and estimate it as square feet of facing work. In that 
case these 8 men did 500 sq, ft. of facing work per day at a 
cost of nearly 2i^ cts. per sq. ft. for labor. 

The building of a wall similar to the one just described 
was done by another gang as follows: The stone and sand 
were delivered in flat cars provided with side boards. In a 
stone car 5 men were kept busy shoveling stone into iron 
dump buckets having a capacity of 20 cu. ft. water measure. 
Each bucket was filled about two-thirds full of stone, then it 
was picked up by a derrick and swung over to the next car 
which contained sand, where two men filled the remaining 
third of the bucket with sand. The bucket was then lifted 
and swung by the derrick over to the platform of the mixer 
where it was dumped and its contents shoveled by four men 
into the mixer, cement being added by these men. The 
mixer was dumped by two men, loading iron buckets hold- 
ing about % cu. yd. of concrete each, which was the size of 
each batch. A second derrick picked up the concrete bucket 
and swung it over to a platform where it was dumped by one 
man; then ten men loaded the concrete into wheelbarrows 
and wheeled it along a runway to the wall. One man as- 
sisted each barrow in dumping into a hopper on the top of 
a sheet-iron pipe which delivered the concrete. The two 
derricks were stiff-leg derricks with 40-ft. booms, provided 
with bull-wheels, and operated by double cylinder (7 x 10- 



S18 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

in.) engines of 18HP. each. About 1 ton of coal was burned 
daily under the boiler supplying steam to these two hoisting 
engines. The output of this plant was 200 batches or 100 cu. 
yds. of concrete per 10-hr. day, when materials were 
promptly supplied by the railroad; but delays in delivering 
cars ran the average output down to 80 cu. yds. per day. 
On the basis of 100 cu. yds. daily output, the cost of mixing 
and placing the concrete was as follows: 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 

5 men loading stone $7.50 $ .OTy^ 

2 " " sand 3.00 .03 

4 " charging mixer 6.00 .06 

2 " loading concrete into buckets . . 3.00 .03 

1 " dumping " from " .. 1.50 MVz 

10 " loading and wheeling concrete. 15.00 .15 

1 " dumping wheelbarrows 1.50 .Ol^^ 

3 " spreading and ramming 4.50 .04% 

2 enginemen 5.00 .05 

1 fireman 2.00 .02 

1 water-iboy 1.00 .01 

1 foreman 6.00 .06 

10 men making forms 25.00 .25 

1 ton coal 4.00 .04 

Total $85.00 $ .85 

In addition there were 8 men engaged in mixing and plac- 
ing the 2-in. facing of mortar as stated above. 

Cost of Retaining Walls, Chicago Drainage Canal. — 

Mr. James W. Beardsley gives 'the following data on 20,- 
000 lin. ft. of concrete wall, built by contract. The work 
was let in two sections. Sees. 14 and 15, which will be con- 
sidered separately. In both cases a 1 : ly2 : 4 natural ce- 
ment concrete was used, and it was faced with 1 : 3 Portland 
mortar 3 ins. thick, also eoped with the same 3 ins. thick. 
The average height of the wall was 10 ft. on Sec. 14, and 
22 ft. on Sec. 15, the thickness at the base being half the 
height. 

On Sec. 14, the stone for the concrete was obtained from 
the spoil bank of the canal, loaded into wheelbarrows and 
wheeled about 100 ft. to the crusher; some was hauled in 



CONCRETE COV^TRVCTION. 319 

wagons. An Austin jaw crusher was used, and it dis- 
charged the stone into bins from which it was fed into a 
Sooysmith mixer. The crusher and the mixer were mounted 
on a flat car. Bucket elevators were used to raise the stone, 
sand and cement from their bins to the mixer; the buckets 
were made of such size as to give the proper proportions 
ot ingredients, as they all traveled at the same speed. 
Only two laborers were required to look after the eleva- 
tors. The sand and cement were hauled by teams and 
dumped into the receiving bins. There were 23,568 cu. yds. 
on Sec. 14, and the cost was as follows: 

Typical Wages per Cost per 

force. 10 hrs. cu. yd. 
General force: 

Superintendent 10 $5.00 $0,026 

Blacksmith 1.1 2.75 0.016 

Timekeeper 0.5 2.50 0.007 

Watchman 0.6 2.00 0.007 

Waterboys 3.9 1.00 0.022 

Wall force: 

Foreman 0.9 2.50 0.013 

Laborers 8.6 1.50 0.073 

Tampers 2.3 1.75 0.022 

Mixer force: 

Foreman 1.2 2.50 0.017 

Enginemen 1.8 2.50 0.025 

Laborers 6.7 1.50 0.057 

Pump runner 1.0 2.00 0.010 

Mixing machines 1.7 1.25 0.012 

Timber force: 

Foreman 0.6 2.50 0.008 

Carpenters 4.7 2.50 0.057 

Laborers L2 1.50 0.010 

Helpers .. 5.3 2.50 0.075 

Hauling force: 

Laborers 2.6 1.75 0.026 

Teams 6.3 3.25 0.116 



320 BANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Typical Wages per Cost per 

Crusliing rorce: force. 10 hrs. cu. yd. 

ForemaQ 0.5 $2.50 $0,007 

Engineman 1.7 2.50 0.023 

Laborers 3.5 1.50 0.032 

Austin crushers 1.7 1.20 0.011 

Loading stone: 

Foremen 1.7 2.50 0.023 

Laborers 32.9 1.50 0.280 

Total for crushing, mixing and placing $0,975 

The daily costs charged to the mixers and crushers in- 
clude the cost of coal, at $2 a ton, and the cost of oil. 

The gang ''loading stone'* apparently did a good deal of 
sledging of large stones, and they also wheeled a large 
part of it in barrows to the crusher. 

The plant cost $9,600, distributed as follows: 

2 jaw crushers $3,000 

2 mixers 3,000 

Track 1,260 

Lumber 500 

Pipe 840 

Sheds 400 

Pumps 600 

Total $9,600 

If this first cost of the plant were distributed over the 
23,568 cu. yds. of concrete it would amount to 41 cts. per 
cu. yd. 

The cost of the concrete was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Utica cement, at $0.65 per bbl $0,863 

Portland cement, at $2.25 per bbl 0.305 

Sand, at $1.35 per cu. yd 0.465 

Stone and labor, as above given 0.975 

Total $2,608 

First cost of plant $0,407 



COXCRETE COXSTRICTIOX. 321 

On Sec. 15 the conditions were much the same as on 
Sec. 14, just described, except that the limestone was quar- 
ried from the bed of the canal, and was crushed in a sta- 
tionary crusher, No. 7 Gates. The stone was hauled 1,000 
ft. to the crusher on cars drawn by a cable from a hoisting 
engine. The output of this crusher averaged 210 cu. yds. 
per day of 10 hrs. The crushed stone was hauled in dump 
cars, drawn by a locomotive, to the mixers. Spiral screw 
mixers mounted on flat cars were used, and they delivered 
the concrete to belt conveyors which delivered the concrete 
into the forms. 

The forms on Sec. 15 (and on Sec. 14 as well) consisted 
of upright posts set 8 ft. apart and 9 ins. in front of the 
wall, held at the toe by iron dowels driven into holes in 
the rock, and held to the rear posts by tie rods. The 
plank sheeting was made up in panels 2 ft. wide and 16 ft. 
long, and was held up temporarily by loose rings which 
passed around the posts which were gripped by the friction 
of the rings. These panels were brought to proper line 
and held in place by wooden wedges. After the concrete 
had set 24 hrs. the wedges were struck, the panels re- 
moved and scraped clean ready to be used again. 

The cost of quarrying and crushing the stone, and mix- 
ing the concrete on Sec. 15 was as follows: 

Typical Wages per Cost per 

General force: tovce, 10 hrs. cu. yd. 

Superintendent 1.0 $5.00 $0,024 

Blacksmith 0.9 2.75 0.011 

Teams 1.7 3.00 0.025 

Waterboy 4.5 1.00 0.022 

Wall force: 

Foreman 1.1 2.50 0.010 

Laborers 14.4 1.50 0.105 

Tampers 0.1 1.75 0.001 

Mixer force: 

Foreman 2.1 2.50 0.026 

Enginemen 2.1 2.50 0.022 

Laborers 23.1 1.50 0.180 

Mixing machines -2.1 1.25 0.022 



322 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Typical Wages per Cost per 

Timber force: force. 10 hrs. cu. yd. 

Carpenters 0.5 3.00 0.013 

Laborers 0.7 1.50 0.005 

Helpers 10.2 2.50 0.125 

Hauling force: 

Foreman 0.7 2.50 0.009 

Enginemen 1.4 2.50 0.019 

Fireman 0.4 1.75 0.003 

Brakeman 2.2 2.00 0.018 

Teams 0.4 3.25 0.007 

Laborers 1.5 1.50 o.OlO 

Locomotives I.4 2.25 0.015 

Crushing force: 

Foreman 1.0 2.50 0.014 

Enginemen 1.0 2.50 0.014 

Laborers 11.1 1.50 0.081 

Firemen 1.0 1.75 0.008 

Gyratory crusher 1.0 2.25 0.011 

Quarry force: 

Foreman 1.2 2.50 0.012 

Laborers 19.0 1.50 0.140 

Drillers 1.8 2.00 0.017 

Drill helpers 1.8 1.50 0.013 

Machine drills 1.8 1.25 0.011 

Total $0,993 

The first cost of the plant for this work on Sec. 15 was 
$25,420, distributed as follows: 

1 crusher. No. 7 Gates $12,000 

Use of locomotive 2,200 

Cars and track 5,300 

3 mixers 3,000 

Lumber 1,200 

Pipe 720 

Small tools 1,000 

Total $25,420 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 323 

This $25,420 distributed over the 44,811 cu. yds. of con- 
crete amounts to 57 cts. per cu. yd. 

It will be noted that 2 mixers were kept busy. Their 
average output was 100 cu. yds. each per day, which is 
the same a^ for the mixers on Sec. 14. 

The total cost of concrete on Sec. 15 was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Labor quarrying, crushing and mixing $0,991 

Explosives 0.083 

Utica cement, at $0.60 per bbl 0.930 

Portland cement, at $2.25 per bbl 0.180 

Sand, at $1.35 per cu. yd 0.476 

Total . $2,660 

First cost of plant $0,567 

It is not strictly correct to charge the full first cost of 
the plant to the work as it possessed considerable salvage 
value at -the end. 

For the purpose of comparing Sees. 14 and 15 the follow- 
ing summary is given of the cost per cubic yard of con- 
crete: 

Sec. 14. Sec. 15. 

General force $0,078 $0,082 

Wall force 0.108 0.116 

Mixing force 0.121 0.250 

Timbering force 0.150 0.140 

Hauling force 0.142 0.081 

Crushing force 0.073 0.128 

Quarry force 0.303 0.275 

Cement, natural 0.863 0.930 

Cement, Portland 0.305 0.180 

Sand 0.465 0.476 

Plant (full cost) 0.407 0.567 

Total $3,015 $3,225 

It should be remembered that on Sec. 14 there was no 
drilling and blasting of the rock, but that the "quarry 
force" not only loaded but hauled the stone to the crusher. 



324 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The cost of mixing on Sec. 15 is higher than on Sec. 14 be- 
cause the materials were dumped on platforms and shoveled 
into the mixer, instead of being discharged from bins into 
the mixer as on Sec. 14. 

Oost of a Retaining Wall. — For building a retaining 
wall 7 ft. high, forms were made and placed by a carpenter 
and helper at $8 per M, wages being 35 cts. and 20 cts. an 
hour, respectively. Concrete materials were dumped from 
wagons alongside the mixing board. Ramming was un- 
usually thorough. Foreman expense was high, due to small 
number in gang; 2 cu. yds. were laid per hour by the gang. 

Per day Per cu. yd. 

7 mixers, 15 cts. per hr $10.50 $0.53 

2 rammers, '' *' 3.00 15 

1 foreman, 30 cts. per hr., and 1 water- 
boy, 5 cts. 3,50 0.17 

Total labor $17.00 $0 85 

The total cost was as follows per cubic yard; 

Per cu. yd. 

0.8 bbls. Portland cement, at $2. .$1.60 

Sand 0.30 

Gravel 0.70 

Labor mixing and placing 0.85 

Lumber for forms, at $16 per M 0.56 

Labor on " '' $8 '' 0.28 

Total, per cu. yd $4.29 

The sheathing plank for the forms was 2-in. hemlock. 

Cost of Abutments and Piers, Lonesome Valley 
Viaduct. — Mr. Gustave R. Tuska gives the following on the 
concrete substructure of the Lonesome Valley Viaduct, near 
Knoxville, Tenn. There were two U-shaped abutments and 
36 concrete piers made of a light limestone that deteriorates 
rapidly when used for masonry. Derricks were not needed 
as would have been the case with masonry piers, and col- 
ored labor at $1 for 11 hrs. could be used. The piers were 
made 4 ft. square on top, from 5 to 16 ft. high, and with a 
batter of 1 in. to the foot. The abutments average 26 ft. 
high, 26 ft. long on the face, with wing walls 27 ft. long; the 



CONCRETE COXSTRUCTION, 325 

wall at the bridge seat is 5 ft. thick, and the wing walls are 
SYj ft. wide on top. Batters are 1 in. to the foot. 

The forms were made of 2-in. tongued and grooved plank, 
braced by posts of 2 x 10-in. plank placed 3 ft. c. to c. for the 
abutments, and at each corner for the piers. At the corners 
one side was dapped into the other, so as to prevent leakage 
of cement. The posts were braced by batter posts from the 
earth. For the piers a square frame was dropped over the 
forms and spiked to the posts. The abutment forms were 
built up as the concreting progressed. The north abutment 
forms were made in sections 6 ft. high, held by %-in. bolts 
buried in the concrete. The lower sections were removed 
and used again on the upper part of the work, thus saving 
plank. The inside of forms was painted with a thin coat of 
crude black oil. The same form was used for several piers. 

The concrete was 1:2:5, the barrel being the unit of 
measure, making about % cu. yd. of concrete per batch. 
The mortar was mixed with hoes, but shovels were used to 
mix in the stone. By passing the blade of a shovel between 
the form and the concrete, the stone was forced back and 
a smooth mortar face was secured. Rammers weighing 30 
to 40 lbs. were used for tamping. Two days after the com- 
pletion of a pier the forms were removed. The concrete was 
protected from the sun by twigs, and was watered twice a 
day for a week. It was found by actual measurement that 
1 cu. yd. of concrete (1:2:5), the ingredients being meas- 
ured in barrels, consisted of 1^/4 bbls. of Atlas cement, 10 
cu. ft. of sand, and 26i^ cu. ft. of stone. The total amount of 
concrete was 926 cu. yds. of which two-thirds was in the 
two abutments. The work was done (in 1894) by con- 
tract, for $7 per cu. yd., cement costing $2.80 per bbl., sand 
30 cts. per cu. yd., and wages $1 a day. A slight profit was 
made at this price. A gang of 15 men and a foreman would 
mix and lay about 40 cu. yds. in 11 hrs. when not delayed by 
lack of materials. The cost of making the concrete, with 
wages at $1 a day, was: 

Cts. per. 
cu. yd. 

1 man filling sand barrels and handling water 2.7 

2 men " rock *' 5.4 

4 '' mixing sand and cement 10.6 

4 ** " stone and mortar 10,6 



326 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cts. per 
cu. yd. 

2 men wheeling concrete 5.3 

1 man spreading concrete in place 2.7 

1 ** tamping 2.7 

Total labor 40.0 

1 foreman at $2 5.0 

Total exclusive of forms 45.0 

If wages had been $1.50 a day instead of $1, the labor cost 
would have been 68 cts. per cu. yd. 

Cost of Bridge Abutments. — Mr. W. A. Rogers gives the 
following data relative to the construction of bridge abut- 
ments on the C. M. & St. P. Ry.: The work consisted in 
building 20 abutments for 10 four-track plate girder bridges 
over street crossings in Chicago. The work was done be- 
tween May 1 and Oct. 1, 1898, in which time 8,400 cu. yds. of 
concrete were placed, all the work being done by company 
labor. The forms were made of 2-in. plank and 6 x 6-in. 
posts bolted together at the top and bottom with %-in. rods. 
The lumber was used over and over again. When the 
dressed plank became too poor for the face it was used for 
the back. The concrete was 1 Portland cement, 3 gravel and 
4 to 41/^ limestone (crusher run up to 3-in. size). A mortar 
face 1% ins. thick was built up with the rest of the concrete. 
The concrete was made quite wet, and each man ramming 
averaged 18 cu. yds. a day rammed. The concrete was mixed 
by a machine of the Ransome type, operated by a 12-HP. 
portable gasoline engine. The load was very light for the 
engine, and 8 HP. would have been sufficient. The engine* 
made 235 revolutions per minute, and the pulley wheels 
were proportioned so that the mixer made 12 revs, per 
min. One gallon of gasoline was used per hour, and the 
mixing was carried on day and night so as not to give fhe 
concrete time to set. The time required for each batch was 

2 to 3 mins., and about % cu. yd. of concrete was delivered 
per batch. The average output was 70 cu. yds. per 10-hr. 
shift, with a crew of 28 men; but as high as 96 cu. yds. were 
mixed in 10 hrs. The concrete was far superior to hand 
mixed concrete. The water for the concrete was measured 
in an upright tank and discharged by a pipe into the mixer. 
The sand and stone were delivered to the mixer in wheel- 



CONCRETE COXSTRlCTIOy. 327 

barrows, and the concrete was taken away in wheelbarrows, 
No derricks were used at all. Each wheelbarrow of concrete 
was raised by a rope passing over a pulley at the top of a 
gallows frame; one horse and a driver serving for this 
raising. A small gasoline hoisting engine would have been 
more satisfactory than the horse which was worked to its 
full capacity. After the barrows were raised (12 ft.), they 
were wheeled to the abutment forms and dumped. The 
empty wheelbarrows were lowered by hand, by means of a 
rope passing over a sheave and provided with a counter- 
weight to check the descent of the barrow. The cost of the 
concrete (built by company labor) was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Cement, gravel and stone delivered $3.28 

Material in forms (used many times) 11 

Carpenters building and taking down forms 34 

Labor 1.18 

Total per cu. yd $4.91 

The labor cost includes moving the plant from one bridge 
to the next, building runways, gasoline for engine, oil for 
lights at night, and unloading materials as well as mixing, 
delivering and ramming the concrete. Wages were $1.75 per 
10-hr. day for laborers and $2.50 for carpenters. 

Cost of 6 Arch Culverts and 6 Bridge Abutments, N. 

C. & St. L. Ry. — Mr. H. M. Jones is authority for the follow- 
ing data: An 18-ft. full-centered arch culvert was built by 
contract on the N. C. & St L. Ry., near Paris, Tenn. The 
culvert was built under a trestle 65 ft. high, before filling in 
the trestle. The railway company built a pile foundation to 
support a concrete foundation 2 ft. thick, and a concrete 
paving 20 ins. thick. The contractors then built the culvert 
which has a barrel 140 ft. long. No expansion joints were 
provided, which was a mistake for cracks have developed 
about 50 ft. apart. The contractors were given a large 
quantity of quarry spalls which they crushed in part by 
hand, much of it being too large for the concrete. The 
stone was shipped in drop-bottom cars and dumped into bins 
built on the ground under the trestle. The sand was shipped 
in ordinary coal cars, and dumped or shoveled into bins. 
The mixing boards were placed on the surface of the ground, 



328 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

and wheelbarrow runways were built up as the work pro- 
gressed. The cost of the 1,900 cu. yds. of concrete in the 
culverts was as follows per cu. yd: 

1.01 bbls. Portland Cement f2.26 

0.56 cu. yds. of sand, at 60 cts 32 

Loading and breaking stone 25 

Lumber, centers, cement house and hardware 64 

Hauling materials 04 

Mixing ane placing concrete 1.17 

Carpenter work 19 

Foreman (100 days at $2. 50) 13 

Superintendent (100 days at $5.50) 29 



$5.29 

It will be seen that only 19 cu. yds. of concrete were 
placed per day with a gang that appears to have numbered 
about 21 laborers, who were negroes receiving about $1.10 
per day. This was the first work of its kind that the con- 
tractors had done. It will be noticed that the cost of 42 
cts. per cu. yd. for superintendence and foremanship was 
unnecessarily high. 

The work In Tables X'V. and XVI. was "company work" 
done by negro labor under company foremen. 



No. of culvert 1 

Span of culvert 5 ft. 

Cu. yds. of concrete.. 210 

Eatlo of cement to 
stone 1:6.5 

Increase of concrete 
over stone 16.0% 

Bbls. cement per 
cu. yd 1.02 

Cu. yds. sand per 
cu. yd 0.43 

Cu. yds. stone per 
cu. yd 0.86 

Total days labor 
(Incl. foremen and 
supt.) 702 607 784 726 768 1,994 

Av. wages per day 
(Incl. foremen and 
supt) $1.61 $1.33 $1.59 $1.19 $1.47 $146 

Cost per cu. yd. : 

Cement 2.18 1.94 2.27 1.82 2.11 2.01 

Sand 0.17 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.14 

Stone 0.52 0.52 0.47 0.54 0.47 0.58 

Lumber 0.88 0.43 0.48 0.43 0.31 0.57 

Unload, materials 0.23 0.17 0.18 0.18 0.16 

Building forms... 1.07 0.83 0.62 0.47 0.72 0.41 

Mixing & placing 1.59 1.74 1.69 1.35 1.23 1.26 



TABLE 


XV. 








Culverts on tbe N. C. & St. T,. Ry, 




2 


3 


4 


5 


8 


7.66 ft. 
199 


10 ft. 
354 


12 ft. 
292 


12 ft. 
406 


16 ft. 

986 


1:6.6 


1:5.8 


1:5.8 


1:6.1 


1:6.5 


9.9^ 


6.3% 


12.3% 


8.3% 


5.3% 


0.90 


1.06 


1.01 


1.00 


1.09 


0.49 


0.44 


0.46 


0.46 


0.47 


0.90 


0.95 


0.89 


0.94 


0.94 



Total per cu. yd $6.65 $5.30 $5.89 $4.97 $5.19 $4.97 



CO^s CRETE COXSTRUCTION. 329 

Note:— All these arches were built under existing trestles, 
and in all cases, except No. 2, bins were built on the 
ground under the trestle and the materials were dumped 
from cars into the bins, loaded and delivered from the bins 
in wheelbarrows to the mixing boards, and from the mixing 
boards carried in wheelbarrows to place. Negro laborers 
were used in all cases, except No. 5, and were paid 90 cts. a 
day and their board, which cost an additional 20 cts.; they 
worked under white foremen who received $2.50 to $3 a day 
and board. In culvert No. 5, white laborers, at $1.25 with- 
out board, were used. There were two carpenters at $2 a 
day and one foreman at $2.50 on this gang, making the 
average wage $1.47 each for all engaged. The men were all 
green hands, in consequence of which the labor on the forms 
in particular was excessively high. The high rate of daily 
wages on culverts Nos. 1 and 3 was due to the use of some 
carpenters along with the laborers in mixing concrete. 
The high cost of mixing concrete on culvert No. 2 was due to 
the rehandling of the materials which were not dumped 
into bins but onto the concrete floor of the culvert and then 
wheeled out and stacked to one side. The cost of excavating 
and backfilling at the site of each culvert is not included 
in the table, but it ranged from 70 cts. to $2 per cu. yd. of 
concrete. 

TABLE XVI. 
Cost of Concrete Abutment, Retaining Walls and Foundations. 

No. of structure 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Cu. yds, of concrete 310 99 282 78 71 72 
Ratio of cement to 

stone 1:5.7 1:6.3 1:5.9 1:6.6 1:5.7 

Increase of concrete 

over stone 6.2% 10.0% 12.8% 4.0% 10.9% 

Bbls. cement per 

cu. yd 1.09 0.95 0.99 0.96 1.03 1.39 

Cu. yds. sand per 

cu. yd 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.51 0.45 0.56 

Cu. yds. stone per 

cu. yd 0.94 0.91 0.90 0.98 0.90 1.09 

Total days labor 

(incl. foremen) 573 226 599 128 131 224 

Av. wages per day 

(incl. foremen).... $1.43 $1.88 $1.46 $1.69 $2.05 $1.55 
Cost per cu. yd. ; 

Cement $2.32 $1.66 $1.98 $2.07 $2.19 $2.95 

Sand 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.21 0.18 0.17 

Stone 0.52 0.18 0.22 0.48 0.18 0.65 

Lumber 0.56 0.09 0.26 0.28 0.51 0.34 

Building forms.... 0.35 0.40 1.09 

Mixing & placing 1.94 3.38 1.36 2.21 1.74 2.59 

Total $5.88 $5,91 $5.09 $5.23 $4.80 $6.70 



330 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Note: — ^Structure No. 7 consists of two abutments to carry 
a 24-ft. span bridge made of I-beams. Bins to hold stone 
and sand were built on the railway embankment. At the 
head of the bin a part of the bank was dug away under the 
track, and long stringers put in to carry the track. The 
rock was dumped from the car into this opening and shov- 
eled into the bin. The forms for the concrete were, of 
course, simpler than for the arches in Table XV.; hence the 
labor on them cost less. 

Structure No. 8 consists of concrete side walls to support 
a cedar cover, forming a culvert. Slag was used instead of 
crushed stone in this structure as well as in Nos. 9 and 11. 

^Structure No. 9 is a retaining wall. There was much 
handling of materials due to lack of room for storage near 
the work. Old material was used for the forms. 

Structures Nos. 10 to 12 are foundations for track scales. 
It is not clear why the labor cost of this work was so very 
high. 

Cost of an Arch Culvert. — ^In Engineering Record, Apr. 
12, 1902, the following is given: 

The cost of a concrete arch culvert, 26 ft. span, 62 ft. 
barrel (exclusive of excavation), with wing walls and 
parapet, built near Pittsburg in 1901, was as follows, the 
concrete being 1 to 8 and 1 to 10, hand mixed: 

Per cu. yd. 

0.96 bbl. cement, at $1.60 $1,535 

1.03 tons coarse gravel, at $0.19 0.195 

0.40 " fine " " 0.21 0=085 

0.32 " sand " 0.36 0.115 

Tools, etc , 0.078 

Lumber for forms and centers 0.430 

Carpenter work on forms (23 cts. hr.) 0.280 

" " ** platforms and buildings 0.050 

Preparing site and cleaning up 0.210 

Changing trestle 0.085 

Handling materials 0.037 

Mixing and laying, av. 15^^ cts. per hr 1.440 

Total per cu. yd $4,540 

Wages per hour were: General foreman, 40 cts.; foreman, 
25 cts.; carpenters, 22i^ to 25 cts.; laborers, 15 cts. The 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 331 

finished structure contained 1,493 cu. yds. total cost, being 
$7,243, including $463 for excavation. The work was done 
for a railway apparently by company forces. 

Concrete Arch Viaduct, S. P., L. A. & S. L. R. R. — 

In Engineering News, Oct. 22, 1903, Mr. A. C. Ostrom gives 
the following facts about an eight-arch viaduct crossing the 
Santa Ana River on the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt 
Lake R. R. The viaduct is 984 ft. long, 17 ft. wide, 55 ft. 
high (averaged), and contains 14,000 cu. yds. of concrete 
without any steel reinforcement. Each arch has a radius of 
iZVo ft., a rise of 37 ft, and a thickness of 42 ins. at the 
crown. The arch ring projects 6 ins. beyond the face of the 
spandrel walls. The piers have a footing 16 x 28 ft. resting 
on granite, and narrow by steps to 9 x 21. They are pene- 
trated vertically by two wells 2i^ x 5 ft., thus saving con- 
crete and providing drainage by weep holes below and hori- 
zontal tunnels at the top of the arch haunch. There are two 
sets of spandrel walls connected by cross walls, covered by a 
10-in. concrete floor which sustains the 3i^ ft. of ballast. 
Cement and gravel in the ratio 1 to 11 were used for the 
foundations and spandrel walls. The arch rings were made 
of 1:2:41/^ stone concrete. The gravel was washed by means 
of a sluice passing through a box where the coarse gravel 
and clean sand settled. Three Ransom e mixers were 
operated by a 25-HP. engine. The arch centers were sup- 
ported on four bents of four piles per bent driven to bed 
rock. These were capped by 12 x 12-in. caps. The thrust 
from the segments was conveyed by radial 8 x 8-in. struts to 
horizontal chords which were upheld by wedges placed on 
12 X 12-in. stringers that rested upon the caps. 

Cost of a Highway Arch Bridge. — In Engineering 
News, Aug. 27, 1903, Mr. William B. Barber gives the fol- 
lowing data: This highway bridge crosses San Leandro 
Creek, Cal. It has a macadam roadway 41 ft. wide, and two 
8-ft. cement walks. The span is 81^^ ft, the rise is 26 ft, 
and the thickness is 3 ft. The footings have at the crown 
a width of 30 ft on each side and extend 5 ft below the bed 
of the creek, resting upon a bed of clay without any pile 
supports. There were 90,000 ft B. M. of lumber in the 
centers. The concrete was a 1:2:7 of broken stone. The 
bridge contains 3,384 cu. yds., and was built at a contract 
price of $25,840 by the E. B. & A. L. Stone Co., of Oakland, 
Cal. 



332 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of a Reinforced Arch Highway Bridge. — Mr P. 

A. Courtright gives the following on the cost of mixing and 
placing concrete in a concrete-steel bridge having 7 
arches, each of 54 ft. span and 8 ft. rise, at Plainwell, Mich., 
in 1903, as follows: 

Total Total 

per day. percu. yd. 

13 men, at $1.80 $23.40 $0.78 

Engine and mixer 5.00 0.17 

1 team 3 00 10 

1 foreman 3 00 0.10 

Total labor for 30 cu. yds $34.40 $1 15 

0.9 cu. yd. gravel, at $0.50 , $0 45 

0.65 bbl. cement, at $2.00 1.30 

Total, per cu. yd $2 90 

The concrete yardage was as follows; 

570 cu. yds, of 1:8 gravel concrete in foundations. 
770 " " " 1:6 " " '* arches. 

150 *' " '* 1:6 " " " walls. 

One sack of cement was considered to be 1 cu. ft. The 
bridge had an 18-ft. roadway and a 5-ft. side wall, a tota^ 
length of 446 ft., and the estimate of its cost at contract 
prices was: 

1,490 cu. yds. concrete, at $7.00 $10,430 

1,200 '* '* earth fill, at $0.30 360 

36,000 lbs. of steel, at $0.05 1,800 

2,800 ft. of piles in foundations, at $0.20 560 

2,230 sq. ft. of cement walk, at $0.10 22S 

Total I$13,373 

Excavating, pumping, cofferdams, and centers, $791 

per arch 5,537 

Grand total $18,910 

I would say that the above estimate appears to be too 
high on the concrete item, and too low on nearly every 
other item, except perhaps tha last. 

The method of making the concrete was as follows; The 
gravel, which had 32% voids, and contained sufficient sand. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 333 

was shoveled into a 1 cu. yd. wagon at the pit, and hauled 
to a platform at the intake of a McKelvey continuous 
mixer. Half the cement required for a batch was spread ' 
over the load of gravel before dumping the load through the 
bottom of the wagon; then the rest of the cement was 
added after dumping. One man shoveled the material over 
to another man who shoveled it into the mixer. After the 
material had passed one-third the length of the mixer, 
water was turned in. The mixer delivered the concrete into 
wheelbarrows from which it was dumped to place and 
spread in 3-in. layers. Two men were employed tamiping to 
1 man shoveling the concrete. The gravel for the arches 
and walls was screened through a 2-in. mesh screen placed 
on the wagon while loading at the pit. Regarding the 
product of the mixer, Mr. Courtright says: "A more com- 
plete blending of materials would be difficult to produce." 
This statement is noteworthy in view of the common preju- 
dice against continuous mixers. 

Centers. — The heels were supported on the benches con- 
structed upon each pier and abutment foundation. Each 
center was supported at the panel joints by twelve tempor- 
ary piles. These were driven in advance of the foundation 
work, sawed off, capped with timbers, and used as a work- 
ing platform. 

The centers themselves were made of Georgia pine plank. 
Each rib section was built up with three planks, two 2 x 12 
inch for outside, and one 10 x 2-inch between. These were 
securely nailed and bolted together, the panels being joined 
by bolting on two pieces of 2 x 4-inch oak. 

The top chord was made of one plank, cut in sections, and 
rounded to fit the intrados of the arch. The panel joints 
were supported by 8 x 12-inch timbers, carried on posts rest- 
ing on 8 X 12-inch timber caps on piles. 

Wedges for lowering the centers were used at all bearing 
points. 

Centers were covered with 2 x 12-inch planed pine lagging 
and made a very rigid and smooth surface for concrete. 
The minimum of time allowed for the removel of centers 
after the completion of an arch was 28 days. 

The appearance of the arch rings, showing the same 
divided as by joints between stones, was produced by nail- 
ing half round strips on the form, and gives a good struc- 



3S4 EAVDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

tural effect to the work. The entire, structure was built in 
the forms with the single exception of the fourteen key- 
stones, which, owing to their peculiar design, were cast 
separate, and set in the form. 

Piling. — Each abutment foundation has 31 piles, the 
piers having 23 each. Piles were oak, elm, beech and 
hickory, not less than 12 Ins., nor more than 16 ins. at the 
head. They cost, delivered on the ground and sharpened 
ready for driving, 15 cents per lineal foot. The average 
number driven per day was SV2. 

The character of the soil rendered driving very difficult; 
a penetration of 2 or 3 ins. when starting a pile was the 
exception rather than the rule. 

Cost cf driving: 

Engine and driver, per day $5.00 

'Enjgineer * 2 50 

Fireman 1.80 

Four driver men, at $1.80 7.20 

Total $16.50 

Conditions for construction were very favorable. The 
water varied in depth from 3 to 5 ft., with a current of from 
two to three miles per hour. Under the isilt and sand which 
formed the river bed, gravel was found to depth of about 3 
ft; below this, quicksand, filled with stones of varying 
sizes, was encountered. 

For foundations, piles were driven to an approximate 
depth of 10 ft. below the bed of the stream. Cofferdams 
were built, the water pumped out, and the excavation car- 
ried down until 1 ft. of gravel was left above the quick- 
sand. The piles were sawed off li/^ ft. above the bottom of 
the excavation, and the concrete carried up to the spring 
line of the arches. 

Cost of 3 Reinforced Arch Bridges, L. S. & M. S. 

Ry.— -Mr. Samuel Rockwell gives the following as to the 
size and cost of three concrete-steel railway arch bridges: 
The bridge arches had a span of 30 ft, a rise of 9 ft., a crown 
thickness of 33 ins., a thickness at the spring of 6l^ ft, and 
a barrel length of 40, 60 and 160 ft., respectively. The abut- 
ments were 8 ft high and 14 ft. wide at the base. Johnson 



CONCRETE COJSISTRIJCTION, 335 

corrugated steel bars were used, for reinforcement. The 
concrete was 1 sand, 3 gravel and sand (50% each) and 6 
broken stone, laid wet. In all there were 4,833 cu. yds., in- 
cluding wing walls and parapets. The work was done by- 
company forces at Elkhart, Ind., in 1903. It will be noted 
that the sand and stone were unusually low in cost. 

Total Cost per 

cost. cu. yd. 

Cement $8,860 1.84 

Stone 1,789 36 

Sand and gravel (obtained from founda- 
tions) 240 05 

Drain tile 103 02 

Steel rods 3,028 0.63 

Labor on concrete 8,091 1.68 

Engineering and watching 508 0.11 

Arch centers and forms 3,529 0.73 

Sheet piling and boxing 1,006 0.21 

Excavating and pumping 1,620 0.33 

Machinery, pipe, fittings, etc 416 08 

Temporary buildings, trestles, etc 752 0.15 



Total for 4,833 cu. yds $29,942 $6.19 

Cost of a Blast Furnace Foundation.— In Trans. Am, 
Soc. C. E., Vol. XV., 1886, Capt. O. E. Michaelis gives the 
following data: Concrete foundations were built for the 
Troy Iron and Steel Co.'s blast furnaces on Breaker Island. 
The excavation was about 15 ft. deep, and the concrete was 
carried up 13 ft. above the surface, no forms being used, as 
an 18-in. wall of masonry was built first and filled behind 
with concrete. It is stated that the men worked with a 
will (but it does not appear so), although they were paid 
only $1 a day, for they expected permanent jobs after the 
completion of the furnaces. The cost of 9,600 cu. yds. of 
concrete was as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

0.74 cu. yd. stone, at $1.41 $1.04 

0.37 '' " gravel, at $0.30 11 

0.13 " " sand, at $0.30 04 

1.23 bbls. Rosendale cement, at $1.00 1.23 

Labor unloading stone (wages 10 cts. per hr.) 13 



336 BANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Per cu. yd. 

Labor drawing cement (20 cts. per bbl.) 02 

" making concrete 85 

Total $3.42 

4 mos. superintendence at $2.50 per mo 10 

Grand total $3.52 

Example of High Cost of Tamping. — Mr. Herman 
Conrow is authority for the following data: 1 foreman, 9 
men mixing, 1 ramming, averaged 15 cu. yds. a day, or only 
IV2 cu. yds. per man per day, when laying wet concrete. 
When laying dry concrete the same gang averaged only 8 
cu. yds. 'a day, there being 4 men ramming. With foreman at 
$2 and laborers at $1.50 a day, the cost was $2.12 per cu. yd. 
for labor on the dry concrete as against $1.13 per cu. yd. for 
the wet concrete. Three turnings of the stone with a wet 
mortar effected a better mixture than four turnings with a 
dry mortar. The ramming of the wet concrete cost 10 cts. 
per cu. yd., whereas the ramming of the dry concrete cost 
75 cts. per cu. yd.! I think this is the highest cost on re- 
cord for ramming. It is evident, however, that the men 
were under a poor foreman, for an output of only 15 cu. yds. 
per day with 10 men is very low for ordinary conditions. 
Moreover, the expensive amount of ramming indicates 
either poor management or the most foolish inspection re- 
Quirements. 

Cost of Filling Pier Cylinders With Concrete. — 'In 
this case the gravel and sand forming the concrete were 
wheeled in barrows a distance of 100 ft. to the mixing- 
board at the foot of steel pier cylinders, into which concrete 
was dumped after raising it 20 ft. in wooden skips. Two 
cu. yds. concrete laid per hour by the gang. 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 
6 men wheeling materials and mixing, 

15 cts. per hour $9.00 $0.45 

2 men dumping skips and ramming, 15 

cts. per hr 3.00 0.15 

1 team and driver, at 40 cts. per hr 4.00 0.20 

1 foreman, at 30 cts. per hr 3.00 0.15 

Total $19.00 $0.95 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 837 

Had the job been larger, more men would have been em- 
ployed to reduce the fixed expense of team time, for a team 
can re-adily raise 10 cu. yds. an hour, using a mast, or gin- 
pole, with block and tackle. The foreman worked on the 
mixing-board himself. The concrete was perfectly mixed. 
The men worked with great energy. 

Cost of Concrete Work on Ry. Culverts. — I have de- 
scribed in Engineering News, May 21, 1903, the construction 
work on the Wabash Ry., near Pittsburg. An abstract of 
certain data on arch culvert construction is here given. 
The cost of form work is not included. 

One contractor using a % cu. yd. cubical mixer averaged 
40 cu. yds. of concrete per 10-hour day, at the following 
cost for labor: 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 
1 foreman $3.00 $0.08 

3 men loading barrows and feeding 

mixer 4.50 0.11 

1 man attending to engine of mixer. .. . 2.50 0.06 

2 men loading barrows with concrete. . 3.00 0.08 

4 " wheeling concrete barrows, 100- 

ft. haul 6.00 0.15 

4 men ramming concrete 6.00 0.15 ' 

4 " wheeling in and bedding large 

stones in concrete 6.00 0.15 

Total $31.00 $0.78 

Assuming % ton of coal per day at $3 per ton, we have 
2 cts. more per cu. yd. for fuel. 

The plant was' located on a hillside with the crusher bins 
above the loading floor or platform which extended over the 
top of the mixer, so that crushed stone could be drawn 
directly from the chutes of the bins and wheeled to the 
mixer. The sand was hauled up an incline in one-horse 
carts and dumped on this floor, and was also wheeled in 
barrows to the mixer. The proportions of ingredients used 
were 4 bags of cement, 4 barrows of sand and stone dust, 
and 7 ibarrows of crushed stone. The cost of ramming, it 
will be noted, is much larger than is ordinarily the case. 
The cost of bedding rubble stones in the concrete was 
greatly outbalanced by the saving in cement. 



338 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Another cubical mixer, not in operation when I visited 
the work, was so arranged as to dump the mixed concrete 
directly into wooden skips which were run under the mixer 
on trucks. There were two skips, each holding 1 cu. yd., 
and one truck running on light rails. A mule was used to 
pull the loaded skip on the truck over to a 60-ft. boom 
derrick operated by an engine. This derrick then picked 
the skip up, swung it over to the concrete wall where it 
was dumped. 

Another contractor had just installed a small Smith con- 
ical concrete mixer. Each charge was 'a small one — 4 bar- 
rows of stone, 2 barrows of sand and 2 bags of cement — and 
the mixer was so designed that a low loading platform could 
be used which is decidedly advantageous where the stone 
and sand must be wheeled up onto the loading platform. The 
cubical mixers have a loading platform 8 to 11 ft. above 
the gro'und level. This Smith mixer had its loading floor 
only 4 ft. above the ground level, but it is only fair to add 
that the mixer is so arranged as to dump its charge into a 
sort of sump or hole about 3 ft. deep. Into this sump a 
derrick delivers iron skips which receive the charge of 
mixed concrete. These skips or buckets are then swung out 
and dumped in the work. The cost of operating this 
mixer was: 

Per day. Per cu. yd 

1 man feeding mixer $1.50 $0.03 

1 man running the mixer engine 2.50 0.05 

1 derrick engineman 2.50 0.05 

2 tagmen swinging derrick boom and 

dumping buckets 3.00 0.06 

6 barrowmen wheeling stone and sand 

to mixer 9.00 0.18 

2 men tamping concrete 3.00 0.06 

1 foreman 3.00 0.06 

Total $24.50 $0.49 

The cost of coal was about 3 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete. 
The output of this gang was 50 cu. yds. per day of 10 
hours. 

At another culvert the contractor was mixing concrete by 
hand and claimed that he was doing the work as cheaply as 
with a mixer, considering moving of plant and depreciation. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 339 

He had 20 men working in two gangs of 10 in a gang, each 
gang being served by a derrick operated by an engine. The 
daily output of these 20 men was 60 cu. yds. of concrete 
rammed in place, at a cost of 50 cts. per cu. yd. for labor, 
not including foreman and engineman. 

Cost of Subaqueous Concrete for a Pier. — The follow- 
ing has been abstracted from Engineering News, Mar. 2, 
1905, and relates to the construction of a pier 3,023 ft. long 
at Superior Entry, Wis. The work was done by day labor 
for the Government, under the direction of Mr. Clarence 
Coleman, M. Am. Soc. C. E., U. S. Assistant Engineer. 

About 80% of the concrete was deposited in molds under 
water, according to a plan devised in 1902 by Maj. D. D. 
G'aillard, 'Oorps of Engineers. The molds consisted of 
bottomless boxes, built in four pieces, two sides and two 
end pieces, held together by li/4-in. turnbuckle tie-rods. 
Cast-iron weights were attached to the molds to overcome 
the buoyancy of the timber. The concrete was built in 
place, in two tiers of blocks, the lower tier resting di- 
rectly on piles and entirely under water. The upper tier of 
blocks was almost entirely above water. A pile trestle was 
built on each side of the proposed pier, and a traveler for 
raising and lowering the molds, spanned the gap between 
the two trestles. After the m'old for a block of concrete had 
been placed on the bottom, it was filled with concrete low- 
ered in a bucket with a drop bottom. Twelve of these 
buckets were used, and were hauled from the mixer on 
cars to a locomotive crane, which lifted each bucket from 
the car and lowered it to place. The locomotive crane was 
elevated on a gantry frame so that a train of cars on the 
same trestle could pass directly under it without inter- 
ference. This enabled two of these locomotive cranes to 
work on the same trestle. 

Each concrete bucket was provided with two 12-oz. can- 
vas curtains or covers each 3x4 ft., quilted with 110 
pieces of 1-16 x 1 x 3-inch sheet-lead. The curtains were 
fastened, one to each side of the top of the bucket, and 
were folded over the concrete so as to cover it completely 
and protect it from wash while being lowered through the 
water. Occasionally, when an opportunity occurred to al- 
low the top of the concrete in a bucket to.be examined after 
being lowered and raised through 23 ft. of water, the con- 
crete was Invariably found in good condition. Discoloration 



340 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

of die water from cement was seldom noticed during the 
descent of the bucket. The concrete for this subaqueous 
work was mixed quite wet. 

The pebbles for the concrete were delivered by contract, 
and were unloaded from the scows by means of a clam- 
shell ibucket into a hopper. This hopper fed the pebbles 
on to an endless belt conveyor which delivered them to a 
rotary screen. Inside this screen water was discharged un- 
der a pressure from a 4-in. pipe, to wash the pebbles. Prom 
the screen the pebbles passed through a chute into 4-yd. 
cars, which were hauled up an incline to a height of 65 ft. 
by means of a hoisting engine. The cars were dumped 
automatically, forming a stock pile. Under the stock pile 
was a double gallery or tunnel, provided with eight chutes 
through the roof; and from these chutes the cars were 
loaded and hauled by a hoisting engine up an inclined 
trestle to the bins above the concrete mixer. A system of 
electric bell signals was used in handling these cars. 

The sand was handled from the stock pile in the same 
manner. The cement was loaded in bags on a car at the 
warehouse, hauled to the mixer and elevated by a sprocket- 
chain elevator. 

Chutes from the bins delivered the materials into the 
concrete mixer which was of the modified cubical type re- 
volving on trunnions about an axial line through diagonal 
corners of the cube. The mixer possessed the advantage of 
charging and discharging without stopping. It was driven 
by a 7 X 10-in. vertical single engine with boiler. The 
mixer demonstrated its ability to turn out a batch of per- 
fectly mixed concrete every 1% mins. It discharged into a 
hopper, provided with a cut-off chute, which discharged in- 
to the concrete buckets on the cars. Four buckets of con- 
crete were hauled in a train by a locomotive to their desti- 
nation. There were two locomotives and 23 cars. 

In the operation of this plant 55 men were employed, 43 
being engaged on actual concrete work and 12 building 
molds and appliances for future work. The work was done 
by day labor for the Government, and the cost of operation 
was as follows for one typical week when, in 6 days of 8 
hours each, the output was 1,383 cu. yds., or an average of 
230 cu. yds. per day. The output on one day was consider- 
ably below the average on account of an accident to plant, 
but this may be considered as typical. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 341 

Per cu. yd. 
Pebbles from stock pile to mixer: 

4 laborers, at $2 $0.0348 

1 engineman, at $3 0.0131 

Coal, oil and waste, at $1.03 0.0043 

Sand from stock pile to mixer: 

5 laborers, at $2 0.0434 

1 engineman, at $2.50 0.0109 

Coal> oil and waste, at $0.82 0.0035 

Cement from warehouse to mixer: 

5 laborers, at $2 0.0434 

Mixing concrete: 

1 engineman, at $2.50 0.0109 

1 mechanic, at $2.50 0.0108 

Coal, oil and waste, at $1.29 0.0056 

Transporting concrete: 

4 laborers, at $2 0.0348 

1 engineman, at $3 0.0130 

Coal, oil and waste, at $0.66 0.0028 

Depositing concrete in molds: 

4 laborers, at $2 0.0348 

1 engineman, at $3 0.0130 

1 rigger, at $3 0.0130 

Coal, oil and waste, at $1.18 0.0051 

Assembling, transporting, setting and removing 
molds : 

4 laborers, at $2 0.0347 

1 engineman, at $3.25 0.0141 

1 carpenter, at $3 0.0130 

1 mechanic, at $2.50 0.0109 

Coal, oil and waste, at $1.39 0.0060 

Care of tracks: 

1 laborer, at $2 0.0086 

1 mechanic, at $2.50 0.0109 

Supplying coal: 

3 laborers, at $2 0.0260 



342 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Blacksmith work: Percu. yd. 

1 laborer, at $2 $0.0086 

1 blacksmith, at $3.25 0.0141 

Water boy, at $0.75 0.0032 

Total per cu. yd $.4473 

Add 75% of the cost of administratioii 0.1388 

Total labor per cu. yd $.5861 

The total cost of each cubic yard of concrete in place is 
estimated to be as follows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Ten-elevenths cu. yd. pebbles, at $1.085 $0.9864 

Ten-twenty-seconds cu. yd. sand, at $0.00 0.0000 

1.26 bbls. cement, at $1.77 2.2302 

Labor, as above given — 0.5861 

Cost of plant distributed over total yardage.... 0.8400 

Total $4.6427 

It will be noticed that the sand cost nothing, as it was 
dredged from the trench in which the pier was built, and 
paid for as dredging. The cost of the plant was distributed 
over the South Pier work and over the proposed North Pier 
work, on the basis of only 20% salvage value after the com- 
pletion of both piers. It is said, however, that 80% is too 
high an allowance for the probable depreciation. 

The cost of the trestles was included in the cost of the 
plant. The Washington fir used in the trestles cost $16 per 
M delivered in the yard. The cost of framing and placing 
the timberwork (exclusive of the piles) was $3.25 per M. 

The cost of the plant was as follows: 

Machinery $30,055.98 

Piles and pile driving 13,963.00 

Lumber for trestles and molds 12,094.26 

Iron and castings 7,572.36 

Labor on plant 15,760.40 

Total $79,446.00 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 343 

The item of "labor on plant" includes all work in building 
trestles, laying track, building molds, mold traveler and all 
appurtenances for performing the work. The cost of plant 
per cu. yd. of concrete was estimated thus: 

First cost $79,446 

20% depreciation during use on South Pier 15,889 

Estimated increase in size of plant for use on North 

Pier 3,972 

Total for both piers $99,307 

'Salvage value of plant 20% 19,861 

Net $79,446 

$79,446 -^ 94,000 cu. yds. =- $0.84 per cu. yd. 

The proportions of the subaqueous concrete were 1:2.5:5 
by volume, or 1:2.73:5.78 by weight, cement being assumed 
to weigh 100 lbs. per cu. ft. The proportions of the super- 
aqueous concrete were 1:3.12:6.25 by volume, or 1:3.41:7.22 
by weight. The dry sand weighed 109.2 lbs. per cu. ft., the 
voids being 35.1%. The pebbles weighed 115.5 lbs. per cu. 
ft, the voids being 31%. 

As above stated, the molds were bottomless boxes built 
in four pieces, two sides and two ends, held together by tie- 
rods. The l^^-in. turnbuckle tie-rods passed through the 
ends of beams that bore against the outside of the mold. 
These tie-rods had eyes at each end, in which rods with 
wedge shaped ends were inserted. The mold was erected on 
the trestle by the locomotive crane, and was then lifted by 
the mold traveler, carried and lowered to place. The largest 
one of these molds, with its cast-iron ballast, weighed 40 
tons. When it was desired to remove a mold, after the con- 
crete block had hardened, the nuts on the wedge-ended rods 
were turned, thus pulling the wedge end from the eye of the 
tie-rod, and releasing the sides of the mold from the ends. 
The locomotive crane then raised the sides and ends separ- 
ately and assembled them ready to be lowered again for the 
next block. The time required to remove one of these 40- 
ton molds, reassemble and set it again rarely exceeded 60 
mins., and had been accomplished in 45 mins. 

As already stated, the concrete was built in alternate 



344 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

blocks; then the intermediate blocks were built, the ends 
of the concrete blocks just built serving as end molds for 
the new blocks. The two sides of a mold (without the end 
pieces) were assembled by the aid of templates, and were 
bolted together by tie-rods. To hold the sides apart when 
the templates were removed, it was necessary to surround 
each of the six tie-rods with a box of 1-in. plank. These 
boxes measured 4 ins. square on the inside; and were left 
buried in the concrete. Their purpose was to act as hori- 
zontal struts to hold the sides of the mold apart, and to 
permit removal of the tie-rods after the concrete block had 
been built. The removal of these rods was accomplished 
by withdrawing the wedge-ended rods. 

The mold traveler deserves a brief description. It was 
provided with a four-drum engine, and the drums were 
actuated by a worm gear which was positive in its move- 
ment in lowering as well as in raising. The drums act in- 
dependently or together, as desired. The hoisting speed was 
6 ft. per min., and the traveling speed, 100 ft. per min. The 
load was suspended on four hooks, depending by double 
blocks and %-in. wire ropes from four trolleys suspended 
from the truss, which allowed lateral adjustment of the 
mold. The difficulty of using so broad a gage as 31 ft., on a 
curve having a radius of 563 ft., was overcome by using a 
defferential gear in the driving shaft of the propelling gear, 
thus compensating for the greater distance traveled by the 
wheels on the outer rail. The whole machine was carried 
on six trucks having two double-flanged wheels each. The 
four forward trucks were swiveled on steel bed plates with 
3-in. king bolts. The two rear trucks were fixed to the 
chord and had idler wheels, which slid on their axles so as 
to accommodate themselves to the curve. 

Cost of Concrete Base for Pavements. — In an article 
in Engineering News, Dec. 5, 1901, I originally gave some 
of the following data: 

The ordinary labor cost of concrete foundations is 0.4 to 
0.5 of a 10-hour day's wages per cubic yard of concrete, 
although occasionally it may be as low as 0.3 of a day where 
two mixing gangs are worked side by side under separate 
foremen, and under an exacting contractor. In such a 
case, the rivalry between the two mixing gangs where the 



CONCRETE COySTRlCTIOX, 345 

progress of the work can be seen at a glance, as in laying 
pavement foundations, will insure a saving of at least 25% 
in the labor item. The following, taken from my note- 
books and time-books, indicates the ordinary cost of con- 
crete mixing and laying: 

Case I. Laying 6-in. pavement foundation. Stone de- 
livered and dumped upon 2-in. plank laid to receive it. If 
dumped directly upon the ground it costs half as much again 
to shovel it up. Sand and stone were dumped along the 
street, so that the haul in wheelbarrows to mixing board 
was about 40 ft. Two gangs of men worked under separate 
foremen, and each gang averaged 4.5 cu. yds. concrete per 
hour. 

The labor cost was as follows for 45 cu. yds. per gang: 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 
4 men filling barrows with stone and sand 

ready for the mixers, wages 15 cts. 

per hr $6.00 $0.13 

10 men, wheeling, mixing and shoveling 

to place (3 or 4 steps), wages 15 cts. 

per hr 15.00 0.33 

2 men ramming, wages 15 cts. per hr. . . 3.00 0.07 
1 foreman at 30 cts. per hr. and 1 water 

boy, 5 cts 3.50 0.08 

Total $27.50 $0.61 

Case II. Sometimes it is desirable to know every minute 
detail of cost, for which purpose I give the following: 

< — Per cu. yd. — » 
Day's labor. Cost. 

3 men loading stones into barrows .06 $0.09 

1 man loading sand into barrows .02 0.03 

2 men ramming .04 0.06 

1 foreman and 1 water boy equivalent to .035 0.05 

wheeling sand and cement to 

mixing board .02 0.03 

f. ] wheeling stone to mixing board .026 0.04 

y men < . . . 

j mixing mortar .013 0.02 

mixing stone and mortar .049 0.07 

placing concrete (walking 15 ft.) .072 0.11 

Total 3.35 $0.50 



346 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

In one respect this is not a perfectly fair example (al- 
though it represents ordinary practice), for the mortar was 
only turned over once in mixing instead of three times, and 
the stone was turned only twice instead of three or four 
times. W'ater was used in great abundance, and by its pud- 
dling action probably secured a very fair mixture of cement 
and sand, and in that way secured a better mixture than 
would be expected from the small amount of labor expended 
in actual mixing. About 9 cts. more per cu. yd spent in 
mixing would have secured a perfect concrete without trust- 
ing to the water. 

Case III. Two gangs (34 men) working under separate 
foremen averaged 600 sq. yds, or 100 cu. yds. of concrete per 
10-hr. day for a season. This is equivalent to 3 cu. yds. per 
man per day. The stone and sand were wheeled to the 
mixing board in barrows, mixed and shoveled to place. Eiach 
gang was organized as follows: 

Per day. Per cu.yd. 

4 men loading barrows $6.00 $0.12 

9 " mixing and placing 13.50 0.27 

2 " tamping 3.00 0.06 

1 foreman 2.50 0.05 

Total $25.00 $0.50 

These men worked with great rapidity. The above cost 
of 50 cts. per cu. yd. is about as low as any contractor caa 
reasonably expect to mix and place concrete by baud in 
pavement work. 

Case IV. Two gangs of men, 34 in all, working side by 
side on separate mixing boards, averaged 720 sq. yds., or 
120 cu. yds., per 10-hr. day. Each gang was organized as 
follows: 

Per day. Per cu.yd. 

6 men loading and wheeling $9.00 $0.15 

8 " mixing and placing 12.00 0.20 

2 " tamping 3.00 0.05 

1 foreman 3.00 0.05 

Total $27.00 $0.45 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 347 

Instead of shoveling the concrete from the mixing board 
into place, the mixers loaded it into barrows and wheeled 
it to place. The men worked with great rapidity. 

Case V. Mr. Alfred F. Harley is authority for the follow- 
ing: In laying concrete foundations for street pavement in 
New Orleans, a day's work, in running three mixing boards, 
covering the full width of the street, averaged 900 sq. yds., 
6 ins. thick, or 150 cu. yds. with a gang of 40 men. With 
wages assumed to be 15 cts. per hr. the labor cost was: 

Cts. per 
cu. yd. 

6 men wheeling broken stone 6 

3 " " sand 3 

1 " *' cement 1 

2 " opening " 2 

7 " dry mixing 7 

8 " taking concrete off 8 

3 " tamping 3 

3 " grading concrete 3 

1 " attending run planks 1 

3 water boys 1 

2 extra men and 1 foreman 4 

Total labor cost 39 cts. 

Case VI. The following cost of a concrete base for pave- 
ments at Toronto has been abstracted from a report (1892) 
of the City Engineer, Mr. Granville C. Cunningham. The 
concrete was l:2l^:7l^ Portland; 2,430 cu. yds. were laid, 
the thickness being 6 ins.; at the following cost per cu. yd.; 

0.77 bbl. cement, at $2.78 $2.14 

0.76 cu. yd. stone, at $1.91 1.45 

0.27 '' " sand and gravel, at $0.80 0.22 

Labor (15 cts. per hr.) 1.03 

Total $4.84 

Judging by the low percentage of stone in so lean a mix- 
ture as the above, the concrete was not fully 6 ins. thick as 
assumed by Mr. Cunningham. Note that the labor cost was 
11/^ to 2 times what it would have been under a good con- 
tractor. 



348 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

It is also noteworthy that Portland cement was used. Un- 
til quite recently Natural cement has been used almost ex- 
clusively in pavement foundations in America. A Natural 
cement concrete is usually made 1:2:5, the cement being 
measured loose, so that about 1.15 bbls. of cement are re- 
quired per cubic yard of concrete. A sufficiently good Port- 
land cement concrete can be made with % bbl. cement per 
cubic yard; and I think that, if the mixing is well done in a 
mechanical mixer, it is safe to make concrete for pavement 
foundations 6 ins. thick using not more than i^ bbl. of Port- 
land cement per cubic yard. 

Case VII. Mr. Charles Apple gives the following data on 
the cost of a 6-in. concrete foundation for a brick pavement, 
at Champaign, 111. The concrete was 1:3:3, Natural cement, 
mixed by hand. The material was brought to the steel mix- 
ing plate from piles 30 to 60 ft. away. 

Cost per 
cu. yd. 

1.2 bbls. cement, at $0.50 $0,600 

0.6 cu. yd. sand and gravel, at $1 0.600 

0.6 " " broken stone, at $1.40 0.840 

6 men turning with shovels, at $2 0.080 

4 " throwing into place, at $2 0.053 

2 '* handling cement, at $1.75 0.023 

1 " wetting with hose, at $1.75 0.012 

2 " tamping, at $1.75 0.023 

1 " leveling, at $1.75 0.012 

6 " wheeling stone, at $1.75 0.070 

4 " " gravel, at $1.75 0.047 

1 foreman, at $4 0.027 

Total per cu. yd $2,387 

The cost of mixing and placing this concrete was 
only 35 cts. per cu. yd., a gang of 26 men and 1 foreman 
placing 150 cu. yds., or 900 sq. yds., per day. I do not be- 
lieve these figures of Mr. x\pple to be trustworthy, for rea- 
sons given on page 163. 

Cost of Machine Mixing and Wagon Hauling. — 

Mr. D. G. Fisher, Asst. Engr., The Laclede Gas Light Co., 
St. Louis, has given the following data on the mixing, de- 



CONCRETE COXSTRUCTtOK. S49 

livering and placing of Portland cement concrete for a 
pavement base 6 ins. thick. 

The gravel was dumped from wagons into a large hopper, 
raised by a bucket elevator into bins, and drawn off through 
gates into receiving hoppers on the charging platform where 
the cement was added. The receiving hoppers discharged 
into the mixers, which discharged the mixed concrete into a 
loading car that dumped into wagons, which delivered 
it on the street where wanted. The longest haul in wagons 
was 30 mins., hut careful tests showed that the concrete had 
hardened well. The wagons were patent dump wagons of 
the drop-bottom type. 

Mr. Fisher says: 

"You may consider the following figures a fair average of 
the plant referred to, working to its capacity. To these 
amounts, however, must be added the interest on the in- 
vestment, the cost of wrecking the plant and the deprecia- 
tion of the same, superintendence, and the pay roll that 
must be maintained in wet weather. I am assuming the 
street as already brought to grade and rolled. 

''With labor at $1.75 per day of 10 hours, teams at $4, en- 
gineer and foremen at $3, and engine at $5 per day, con- 
crete mixed and put in place by the above method costs: 

Per cu. yd. 

To mix $0.12 to $0.15 

To deliver to street 0.10 to 0.14 

To spread and tamp in place 0.08 to 0.11 

Total $0.30 to $0.40 

'The mixers are No. 2^^ Smith, sold by the Contractors* 
Supply and Equipment Co., Chicago, 111., and a i/^-yd. Cube, 
sold by Municipal Engineering & Contracting Co., Chicago. 

"The Smith mixer will deliver 40 thOTOughly mixed 
batches per hour under favorable conditions. 

*The above figures are on the basis of a batch every 2 
minutes, which is easily maintained by using the loading 
car, as by this means there will be no delay in the opera- 
tion of the plant owing to the irregularity of the arrival 
of the teams. 

**My experience leads me to believe that a better efficiency 



350 BANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

can be obtained by using mixers of 1 cu. yd. capacity, and 
that the batch mixer is the only type of machine where any 
certainty of the proportion of the mixture is realized." 

Cost of Mixing with a Gravity Mixer. — Mr. G. B. Ash- 
croft states that a small gravity mixer of the Peter Haines 
type was used in the building of a dock for The William 
Skinner Ship-Building & Dry Dock Co., of Baltimore, Md. 
It consisted of two conical hoppers, one above the other, 
and above these were four small pyramidal hoppers for 
measuring the sand and stone, and above these were small 
bins. On man at each conical hopper tending the gates, 
and two men at the pyramidal hoppers (4 men in all) con- 
stituted the gang on the mixer. A scow load of sand and 
another of broken stone were hauled alongside the bulk- 
head on which the mixer stood, and a clamshell bucket 
dredge was used to load the sand and stone from the scows 
into the bins of the mixer. Each batch was 25 cu. ft. of 
1:2:5 concrete rammed into place. The record for 10 hrs. 
was 110 batches, making about 35 cts. per cu. yd. as the 
labor cost. Wages of common laborers were $1.50. The 
concrete was run directly into place through chutes; and the 
mixer was moved from place to place by means of the 
dredge boom. 

On the Cedar Grrove Reservoir, huilt for Newark, N. J., 
a large gravity mixer of the Haines type was used. A 
photograph of the mixing plant is given in Eingineering 
Record, Dec. 5, 1903, and the statement is made that the 
best day's output of the mixer was 360 cu. yds. of 1:2:5 
concrete. As a matter of fact the best day's output was 
403 cu. yds.; the average output during the best month was 
302 cu. yds.; and the average of the whole job was 225 cu. 
yds. per 10-hr. day. The stone, sand and cement were all 
raised by bucket elevators to the top of the high wooden 
tower that supported the bins and the mixer. There were 
10 men operating the mixer, so that (exclusive of power, 
interest and depreciation) the labor cost of mixing averaged 
only 7 cts. per cu. yd.; and during one month it was as low 
as 5 cts. per cu. yd. This does not include delivering the 
materials to the men at the mixer, nor does it include con- 
veying the concrete away and placing it. The work was 
done by contract. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. S51 

Cost of Concrete Made With a Trump Mixer. — In 

Trans. Am. Soc. M. E., June, 1905, Mr. E. N. Trump, of 
Syracuse, N. Y., describes his novel device for automatically 
measuring the ingredients of concrete, which are delivered 
in a continuous stream into a paddle mixer. The stone, 
sand and cement are elevated into hoppers by bucket eleva- 
tors, and the hoppers discharge continuously onto rotating 
tables, where large steel knives scrape off the proper pro- 
portions of ingredients into a chute that delivers to the 
mixer. The device is so simple, so effective and so remark- 
ably cheap to operate that it is deserving of careful con- 
sideration. About 10 HP. are said to be sufficient for oper- 
ating the measurer and mixer. Mr. Trump gives the fol- 
lowing cost data: 

No. 1 Concrete Experiment. — A concrete mixer was in- 
stalled in a central position, where the stone, cement and 
sand could be elevated into hoppers by means of a system 
of buckets, elevated on an elevator and pushed by hand at 
both the bottom and the top, the labor including shoveling 
the isand and stone into the buckets and emptying cement 
from the bags. The cost of this concrete was as follows: 

1 cubic yard of concrete, with a 1:3:5 mixture, weighs 
3,800 lbs. and contains as follows: 

4.5 cu. ft. or 11/3 bbls. of cement, @ $1.15 per bbl.. . $1.54 

13.5 " " of sand 45 

22.5 '* " " spalls, 1,975 lbs. (§) $0.35 per net ton. . .345 

For hauling isand, then elevating and placing in 

hopper .021 

For hauling cement, then elevating and placing in 

hopper 025 

Cost of mixing 50 yds. per day, labor (g) $0.15 per hr. .056 

Current and motors .01 

Repairs — Average for six months .01 

Cost per cu. yd. loaded into wagons $2,457 

Cost of making concrete exclusive of material. . 0.122 

The concrete machine running with the table making 5 
revolutions per minute has a capacity of 50 cu. yds. per 
hour. 

The above figures for labor are higher than they would 



352 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

be if more concrete had been made, only 50 cu. yds. being 
the amount required. 

The machine was operated by making two or three cubic 
yards at a time, and then stopping until more concrete was 
required. 

No. 2 Concrete Experiment.. — Foundations of a large 
building, the concrete being hauled in carts and dumped into 
trenches. 
Cost of concrete loaded into wagons (as above given) $2.45 

Hauling from mixer to job .19 

Putting in place .28 

Total cost per cubic yard in place |2 92 

In the above case the concrete was made as fast as six 
carts could haul it 500 ft. 

No. 3 Concrete Experiment. — Cost of machine shop floor, 
having 8-in. thickness of concrete, left with a rough sur- 
face. 

Cost of concrete loaded into wagons $2.45 

Hauling from mixer to job .175 

Putting in place 86 

Total cost per cubic yard in place $3,485 

No. 4 Concrete Experiment. — Heavy foundations. 
Concrete put into wheelbarrows and wheeled on plank 
runways about 150 ft. 

Cost of concrete loaded into wheelbarrows $2.45 

Wheeling 150 feet and putting in place 73 

Total cost per cubic yard r $3.18 

No. 5 Concrete Experiment. — ^Heavy concrete retaining 
walls, and concreting around a series of large pipes in a 
trench, hauling concrete 2,200 ft. on bad roads, and wheeling 
from where wagons were dumped and putting in place. 

Cost of concrete loaded into wagons $2.45 

Hauling 2,200 ft. on bad roads 26 

Wheeling from wagons, dumping and putting in 

place 22 

Total cost per cubic yard $2.93 



CONCRETE COySTRUCTIOX. 353 

Cost of Groined Arches and Forms on the Albany 
Filter Plant. — The following data are given by Mr. Allen 
Hazen and Mr. William B. Fuller, in Trans. Am. Soc. 
C. E. 1904. The concrete was mixed in 5-ft. cubical 
mixers in batches of 1.6 cu. yds. at the rate of 200 
cu. yds. per mixer day. One barrel of cement, 380 
lbs. net, assumed to be 3.8 cu. ft, was mixed with three 
volumes of sand weighing 90 lbs. per cu. ft, and five volumes 
of gravel weighing 100 lbs. per cu. ft. and having 40% voids. 
On the average 1.26 bbls. of cement were required 
per cu. yd. The conveying plant consisted of two 
trestles (each 900 ft. long) 730 ft apart, support- 
ing four cableways. The cables were attached to car- 
riages, which ran on I-beams on the top of the trestles. 
Rope drives were used to shift the cableways along the 
trestle. Three-ton loads were handled in each skip. The 
installation of this plant was slow, and its carrying capacity 
was less than expected. It was found best to deliver the 
skips of concrete to the cableway on small railway track, 
although the original plan had been to move the cableways 
horizontally along the trestle at the same time that the skip 
was traveling. 

The cost of mixing and placing the concrete was as fol- 
lows: 

Per cu. yd. 

Measuring, mixing and loading $0.20 

Transporting by rail and cables 0.12 

Laying and tamping floons and wall's including 

setting forms 0.22 

Total $0.54 

The cost of laying and tamping the concrete on the vault- 
ing was 14 cts. per cu. yd. The vaulting is a groined arch 
6 ins. thick at the crown and 2% ft. thick at the piers. 

The lumber of the centering for the vaulting was spruce 
for the ribs and posts, and 1-in. hemlock for the lagging. 
The centering was all cut by machinery, the ribs put to- 
gether to a template, and the lagging sawed to proper bevels 
and lengths. The centers were made so that they could be 
taken down in sections and used again. The cost of center- 
ing was as follows: 



i 



354 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Labor on centerKJ covering 62,560 sq. ft. 

Foreman, 435 hrs. at 35 cts $152.25 

Carpenters, 4,873 hrs. at 22y2 els 1,096.42 

Laborers, 3.447 hrs. at 15 cts 517.05 

Painters, 577 hrs. at 15 cts 86.55 

Teaming, 324 hrs. at 40 cts 121.60 



Total labor building centers 313 M at $6.37 $1,973.87 

Materials for centers covering 62,560 sq. ft. 

313,000 ft. B. M. lumber, at $18.20 , $5,700.00 

3,700 lbs. nails, at 3 cts 111.00 

8 bbls. tar, at $3 24.00 

Total $5,835.00 

These centers covered two filters, each having an area of 
121% X 258 ft. There were six more filters of the same 
size, for which the same centers were used. The cost of 
taking down, m.oving and putting up these centers (313 M) 
three times was as follows: 

Foreman, 2,359 hrs. at 35 cts $825.65 

Carpenters, 12,766 hrs. at 22^2 cts 2,872.35 

Laborers, 24,062 hrs. at 15 cts 3,609.30 

Team, 430 hrs. at 40 cts 172.00 

3,000 ft. B. M. lumber, at $20 60.00 

8,000 lbs. nails, at 3 cts 90.00 

Total cost moving centers to cover 196,660 

sq. ft. $7,629.30 

The cost of moving the centers each time was $8.10 per M, 
showing that they were practically rebuilt; for the first 
building of the centers, as above shown, cost only $6.37 
per M. In other words, the centers were not designed so as 
to be moved in sections as they should have been. Although 
the centers were used four times in all, the lumber was in 
fit condition for further use. The cost of the labor and 
lumber for the building and moving of these centers for the 
8 filter beds, having a total area of 259,220 sq. ft. was $15,438, 
or 6 cts. per sq. ft. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 355 

Cost of Lining a Water-Works Tunnel. — In Trans. 
Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 31, p. 294, Mr. Desmond Fitz Gerald 
describes the lining of a water-works tunnel with concrete. 
The tunnel passes through Beech Street, Boston, and is 
in a conglomerate rock. It was built in 1875 and was lined 
with concrete, 12 ins. thick, in 1889-1892, the tunnel inside 
the lining having a horse-shoe shape, 9 ft. in diameter. The 
water was shut off four days out of every week while work 
was in progress. All work was done by day labor and was 
very expensive, the cost being $16.15 per cu. yd. of concrete 
for lining 1,182 ft. of tunnel, or at a cost of nearly $50 per 
lin. ft! The progress was 6.36 ft. of tunnel lined per day 
for 186 days worked. I have abstracted the following data 
to illustrate how very expensive day labor work often is 
compared with work done by contract. 

A track having a 2-ft. gage, and a length of 4,000 ft, was 
laid in the bottom of the aqueduct and the tunnel, the track 
being supported on a small trestle, which is illustrated and 
described in detail. There were 75 centers spaced 4 ft 
apart and lagged with 2 x 4-in., containing in all 14 M ft. of 
spruce, which cost $100 per M in place! The gang of men 
was as follows: 

2 men screening sand. 

1 " shoveling sand. 

2 " shoveling stone. 

1 " opening cement. 

7 " transporting materials on cars. 
5 ** mixing concrete. 

2 " conveying concrete on cars. ^ 

2 " unloading concrete. 

4 " spreading and ramming. 

4 " digging foundation piers, pumping water and pre- 
paring centers. 

3 " taking down and helping set up centers. 

3 '' taking nails out of lagging, scraping and washing 

lagging. 
3 carpenters setting centers and building drains. 
1 foreman. 
1 superintendent. 

41 total gang. 



356 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

This gang worked in the tunnel four days weekly, and 
worked the other two days elsewhere. The number of cubic 
yards of concrete placed daily by this large gang of men was 
only 18 cu. yds., or less than % cu. yd. per man per day! 
The average distance that the material was transported in 
cars was 2,700 ft., and 192 bbls. of cement, sand -and stone 
were rammed by 7 men daily. Three of these men pushed 
a car holding 11 bbls. of material, making 8 trips a day. 
The distance traveled per man per day was only 7.66 miles. 
These men also unloaded their cars, thus shoveling 27.4 bbls. 
(or 3.4 cu. yds.) besides. Loaded cars had right of way, 
and returning empty cars had to make quick trips from 
switch to switch. It is apparent from the cost data given 
that the men were a lazy lot. 

Some interesting measurements were made showing the 
shrinkage of sand and stone. It was found that a barrel 
of sand shoveled into a measuring box measured 3.42 cu. ft., 
but this sand when allowed to drop 12 ft. through a chute 
into the cars measured 7% less. A barrel of stone averaged 
3.37 cu. ft, but upon falling 12 ft. the stone was compacted 
9%. As the materials were measured compacted in the cars, 
the 1:2:5 concrete contained 1 bbl. of cement, 2 1-6 bbls. of 
loose sand, and 5% bbls. of loose stone. By actual measure 
this was found to make 20 cu. ft. of thoroughly rammed 
concrete. The concrete in the tunnel was not so com- 
pact, however, as it measured 21 cu. ft. per batch, 1.3 bbls. 
of Portland cement being used per cubic yard of concrete, 
so that it required 38 cu. ft. of cement, sand and stone to 
make 1 cu. yd. of concrete. The stone was the "run of the 
crusher." A cement barrel was put into a box, surrounded 
with concrete, and filled with water. It took 3.425 cu. ft of 
water to fill the barrel between the heads. The sand and 
stone were measured in barrels with one head out and there- 
fore measured more. Two barrels of sand and one of 
cement mixed 5 times dry still fill three barrels, but the 
moment water is added shrinkage occurs. 

Cost of Making Blocks for a Concrete Sewer. — At 

Coldwater, Mich., in 1901, there was built a concrete sewer 
with a monolithic invert and an arch of concrete blocks. 
Riggs & Sherman, of Toledo, O., designed the sewer, and 
H. V. Gifford, of Bradner, 0., was in charge of construc- 
tion. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 357 

The sewer was circular, having an inner diameter of 42 
ins., the thickness of the invert and the arch alike was 
8 ins. The concrete was 1 of Portland cement to 6 of 
gravel. There were 11 concrete blocks in the ring of the 
arch, each block being 24 ins. long, 8 ins. thick, 8 ins. wide 
on the outside of the arch and 5% ins. wide on the inside 
of the arch. A block weighed 90 lbs, which was too heavy 
for rapid laying; blocks 18 ins. long would have been bet- 
ter. Some 8,500 blocks were made. Molds were of 2-in. 
lumber, lined with tin, for after a little use it was found 
the concrete would stick to the wood when the mold was 
removed. The four sides of thci mold formed the extrados, 
the intrados, and the two ends of the block; the other two 
sides being left open. When put together the mold was 
laid upon a 1-in. board, 12 x 30 ins., reinforced by cleats 
across the bottom. The sides of the molds were held to- 
gether with screws or wedge clamps. When the blocks 
had set, the sides of the molds were removed, and the 
blocks were left on the 12 x 30-in. boards for 3 days, then 
piled up, being watered several times each day for a week. 

A gang of 14 men made the blocks; 2 screening gravel 
through 1-in. mesh screen; 4 mixing concrete; 4 molders; 
3 shifting and watering blocks; and 1 foreman. With a 
little practice each molder could turn out 175 blocks a day; 
and since each block measured % cu. ft, the output of the 
14 men was 19% cu. yds. a day. Mr. Gifford informs me 
that the wages were $1.50 a day for all the men, except the 
foreman. The daily wages of the 14 men were $22, so that 
the labor of making the blocks was $1.10 per cu. yd. 

Each batch of concrete, containing i/4 bbl. of Portland 
cement costing $1.35 per bbl., made 18 blocks. (1 bbl. per 
cu. yd.) Since the gravel cost nothing, except the labor 
of screening it, the total cost of each block was 11 to 12 
cts., which includes 0.85 cent for use of molds and mold 
boards, which were an entire loss. At 12 cts. per block the 
cost was $4.32 per cu. yd. 

The contract price was $3 per lin. ft. of this sewer, as 
against a bid of $3.40 per ft. for a brick sewer. 

When the trenching had reached to the level of the top 
of the invert, two rows of stakes were driven in the bot- 
tom, stakes being 6 ft apart in each row, and rows bein^: 
a distance apart i/4-ln. greater than the outer diameter 



358 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

of the sewer. Those stakes were driven to such a grade 
that the top of a 2 x 4-in. cap or "runner" set edgewise 
on top of them was at the proper grade of the top of 
the invert. The excavation for the invert was then begun, 
and finished to the proper curve by the aid of a templet 
drawn along the 2 x 4-in. runners. In gravel it was im- 
possible to hold the true curve of the invert bottom. Con- 
crete was then placed for the invert. To hold up the sides 
of the invert concrete, a board served as a support for the 
insides, but regular forms were more satisfactory in every 
respect except that they were in the way of the work- 
men. A form was tried, its length being 6 ft. It was built 
like the center for an arch, except that the sheeting was 
omitted on the lower part of the invert. It was sus- 
pended from cross-pieces resting on the ''runners. " After 
the concrete had been rounded in place, the form was re- 
moved and the invert trued up. This form worked well 
In soil that could be excavated a number of feet ahead, so 
that the forms could be drawn ahead instead of having to 
be lifted out; but in soil, where the concreting must im- 
mediately follow the excavation for the invert, the form 
is in the way. The invert was trued up by drawing along 
the runners a semicircular templet having a radius of 
21^2 ins. Then a %-in. coat of 1:2 mortar was roughly 
troweled on the green concrete. Another templet having 
a 21-in. radius was then drawn along the runners to finish 
the invert. 

When the plaster had hardened, two courses of con- 
crete blocks were laid on each shoulder of the invert, using 
•a 1:2:% mortar, the % part being lime paste. The lime 
made the mortar more plastic and easier to trowel. Then 
the form for the arch was placed, and as each 8-ft. section 
of the arch was built, a grout of 1:1 mortar was poured 
over the top to fill the joints. Earth was thrown on each 
shoulder and tamped, and the center moved ahead. 

Common laborers were used for all the invert work, ex- 
cept the plastering which was done by masons who were 
paid 30 cts. per hr. Masons were also used to lay the con- 
crete blocks in the arch. Mr. Gifford states that two 
masons would lay at the rate of 100 lin. ft. of arch per 
day, if enough invert were prepared in advance. As there 
were 11 blocks in the ring of the arch, this rate would be 
equivalent to 7^ cu. yds. of arch laid per mason per day. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 359 

Cost of Concrete Block Manholes. — Mr. Hugh C. 
Baker, Jr., gives the following: 

The cost of making concrete block manholes at Rye, 
N. Y., was as follows per manhole: 

30 blocks for walls, 2.5 cu. yds. of 1:2:5 concrete.. $21.00 

6 blocks for cover, % cu. yd. reinforced concrete. .. . 4.27 

I-beams for cover, in place 5.40 

Supervision, freight and hauling, 5.6 tons concrete. . 9.38 

3 hrs. labor placing cover at 15 cts 0.45 

20 hrs. labor placing walls at 15 cts 3.00 

Total per manhole, exclusive of iron cover.. $43.50 

Elach manhole Was 5 ft deep inside, 8-in. walls, 5 ft. 
in diameter. All concrete was handmixed, very wet, %-in. 
stone being used. A set of 30 wooden molds for the wall 
blocks was made. These molds cost from $3.50 to $12 each; 
some being made of hard wood lined with zinc. In making 
the blocks 4 men averaged 15 wall blocks a day of about 2i^ 
cu. ft. each, which is equivalent to 0.84 cu. yd. per man 
per day. The concrete was allowed to set 3 to 12 hrs. be- 
fore removing the molds; 24 to 36 hrs. before taking the 
blocks outside to dry; and 7 days before shipping the 
blocks. About 1^000 blocks w^ere made and only 9 lost by 
breaking. 

For comparison it is well to give the cost of brick man- 
holes, as follows: 

1,450 brick at $8.25 per M $11.96 

Mason 6.00 

46 hrs. labor at 15 cts 6.90 

4 bbls. cement at $1.25 5.00 

Sand 75 

Supervision, etc 2.50 

Concrete top blocks (i^ cu. yd.) and I-beams 11.40 

Total $44.51 

This brick manhole had a flat concrete top. 

Cost of Conduit Foundation and Invert. — Mr. Henry 
H. Carter gives the following data on the building of 2,500 
cu. yds, of concrete for a foundation and invert of the 



360 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Farm Pond conduit. The work was done in about 100 
days in 1885 for the city of Boston by day labor (not ^y 
contract), at a cost of $4.21 per cu. yd., distributed thus: 

Per cu. yd. 

Foreman, at $2.75 $0.16 

Laborers, 20 at $1.65 1.22 

Carpenters, 2 at $2.25 0.15 

Horse and car, at $3.15 0.15 

Miscellaneous labor 0.01 

Total labor $1.69 

1.32 bbls. natural cement $1.66 

0.38 cu. yd. sand at $1.20 0.45 

1 cu. yd. gravel at $1.20 1.20 

Wasted cement, etc 0.03 

Total materials in concrete $3.34 

Lumber for forms, $125 $0.05 

Cement shed, $100 0.04 

Cars, $66 0.03 

Tools, loss and depreciation, $25 0.01 

Boiler (20 days), $20 0.01 

Pumps (100 days), $25 0.01 

Coal for pumps, 12 tons, $72 0.03 

Total plant $0.18 

Cost of Concrete-Steel Building Columns. — Mr. 

Keith O. Guthrie gives the following data: Brick columns 
of the station of the Louisville Lighting Co. laid in lime 
mortar, in 10 years became so lacking in strength that 
they were cut out, and concrete-steel columns substituted. 
The design and dimensions of these columns are shown in 
Fig. 17. The building was shored, and a light movable 
scaffolding (4 x 6 ft. x 50 ft. high) was built from which 
to cut away the old brick and build the concrete. There 
were 12 columns, and the scaffolding was taken down and 
moved from column to column at a cost of $2.94 each 
move. The 12 cu. yds. of brick masonry in each column 
were cut out by two men with a drill and sledge in about 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 



361 



15 hrs., at a cost of 70 cts. per cu. yd., including removal 
to the street. Then the eight reinforcing bars were set 
up; 15-ft. lengths of iron were used, spliced with 2%-in. 
bolts, and distanced by side bars and cress bolts at the 
splices. This formed a cage easily held in place. Con- 
crete was mixed in 6 cu. ft. batches at the foot of the 
column by three men, with a fourth turning over and fill- 
ing buckets. A fifth man received the buckets on the 
scaffold, as fast as they were hoisted, and dumped them 
into the form, where a sixth man tamped with a short 
iron bar and with his feet. The buckets were of galvanized 
iron, 12 ins. in diam. and 16 ins. high — just ahout all a 
man can handle full of concrete. 



.'2x5" yVSheefrng 



,' Moulding Strip 



' 0. 0, ;-Mji . i'-mi imi ■■•■■■■ ■( 

i^^tt 




FIG. 17. 



After tamping each batch, which raised the level of the 
concrete 15 ins., the man inside the form hooked six cross 
ties of No. 6 steel wire on the reinforcing bars, as 
shown. The ties were bent by hand in a vise at a cost 
of less than 1 ct. each for labor. A mule driven by a man 
hoisted the buckets, wages being $1 a day for the mule and 
$1.50 for the driver; the cost of hoisting being 25 to 40 
cts. per cu. yd. depending upon the rapidity of the man 
inside the column. It took from ly^ to 2 days to concrete 
a column of 12 cu. yds. "The work could have been done 
in half the time had the man inside been able to handle 
the material." The concrete was 1:3.8:5.7; the stone being 
limestone "screenings." It was deposited wet enough to 
be easily pushed into corners. A good surface was secured 
except where leaks in the forms drained eff the mortar. 



362 HAimBOOK OF COST DATA. 

This fault was overcome by the use of triangular mold- 
ing strips (1% ins. on a side) of poplar tacked in the cor- 
ners of the forms, making them water tight. Two faces 
of the columns were painted with grout. The building 
vibrated excessively during the concreting, due to a high 
speed engine that was running; but this vibration disap- 
peared as the cement hardened, until only a tremor re- 
mained. 

Mr. Guthrie informs me that the heavy lumber for shor- 
ing cost $23 per M and was used 4 times. The light lum- 
ber for forms cost $18 per M. All lumber was yellow pine. 
The forms for one column required G50 ft. B. M.; and on 
an average the forms were used twice. As a matter of 
fact the side strips and outside braces were used 3 times, 
while much of the %-in. sheeting was destroyed after one 
usage, although heavy oil was used to save it from the 
killing effect of wet concrete. Tongue and groove boards 
can not be shifted to advantage, regardless of their thick- 
ness. For light work I14 ^ 9 in. square dressed stuff is 
the handiest and most lasting. 

All labor (n'^groes), 15 cts. per hr.; foreman (who 
worked), 22% cts. per hr. 

Cost per Cost per 
Concrete. column. cu. yd. 

Lumber for forms $4.81 $0.40 

Setting up and removing forms 11.32 0.95 

Cement, 10.17 bbls. at $2.40 24.40 2.03 

Sand, 5.87 yds. at $0.90 5.28 0.44 

Stone, 8.75 yds. at $1.35 10.94 0.91 

Mixing and wheeling 15.73 1.31 

Hoisting by mule with driver 4.80 0.40 

Handling bucket on scaffold 2.93 0.25 

Tamping inside column 2.93 0.25 

Painting with grout 3.89 0.32 

Clearing away rubbish 1.97 0.16 

Rigging, etc 2.64 0.21 

Tools 0.59 0.05 

Moving scaffold 2.94 0.25 

Moving mix board and rigging hoist. . 1.62 0.14 

Total cost of concrete $96.79 $8.07 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIOy. 363 

Cost per Cost cts. per 
column, lb. of bars. 

Iron bars, 1,034 lbs $20.68 2.00 

Drilling iron bars 1.44 0.14 

Setting iron bars in place 1.23 0.12 

Boltb for splicing and spacing 3.98 0.40 

Wire cross ties at 2% cts. lb 1.39 0.14 

Labor forming 130 cross ties 1.13 0.11 

Total cost of iron and steel $29.85 2.91 

Summary of Cost. 

Per column. Per cu. yd. 

Concrete in place $96.79 $8.07 

Steel in place 29.85 2.49 

Cutting out and removing brick 8.36 0.70 

Shoring floors and roof, labor 5.87 0.49 

Ditto for lumber used 3 times 3.44 0.29 

Total $144.31 $12.04 

Cost of Mixing and Placing Concrete for a Build- 
ing. — The following relates to the placing of concrete in 
the walls, floors and columns of a concrete-steel building. 
The concrete was mixed in a Smith mixer driven by a 
gasoline engine. It was dumped from the mixer through 
a pivoted chute into two 10-cu. ft. buckets on a flat car, 
and hauled by a horse to one of the two cableways which 
raised and delivered the buckets to the platforms where 
the buckets were dumped. Men then shoveled the con- 
crete into wheelbarrows and delivered it where wanted. 
The crew at the concrete mixer was organized as fol- 
lows: 14 men loaded wooden skips with the required 
proportion of sand for a batch, the sand being shoveled 
into a bottomless measuring box laid on the bottom of 
the skip. After loading the sand, the broken stone was 
wheeled in barrows and dumped into the skip. A der- 
rick then hoisted the skip which was dumped by two men 
Into a chute leading to the mixer. These same two men 
fed in the necessary number of bags of cement, and the 
water. Each batch of concrete was % cu. yd., and the 



364 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

mixer averaged 200 batches, or 150 cu. yds. a day. The 
best day's run was 246 batches. The cost of mixing and 
placing the concrete was as follows: 

Per day. 

14 men loading skips with sand and stone $21.00 

1 tag-rope man swinging derrick boom 1.75 

1 derrick engineman 2.50 

2 men feeding mixer 3.00 

1 man (foreman) dumping mixer 2.50 

10 gals, gasoline for mixer engine 1.25 

% ton coal for derrick engine 1.50 

6 horses on 6 cars 9.00 

6 drivers for same 9.00 

2 men receiving cars, left side of building 3.00 

2 men receiving cars, right side of building 3.00 

2 cableway enginemen 6.00 

1 ton coal for cableways 4.50 

2 signal men 3.00 

2 men dumping buckets 3.00 

10 men loading and wheeling 15.00 

4 men placing concrete 6.00 

1 superintendent 6.00 

Total, 150 cu. yds., at 67 cts $101.00 

The concrete was mixed "sloppy," so that it required 
only a small amount of spading. The cost of forms and of 
placing the steel before concreting is not available. 

Cost of Concrete Building Blocks.— In Engineering 
News, April 6, 1905, Mr. L. L. Bingham gives the following 
data. Letters were sent to more than a hundred makers of 
concrete blocks in Iowa. Most of the replies gave data 
relating to blocks for walls 10 ins. thick. The average 
cost per square foot of blocks for a 10-in. wall was: 

Sand 2.0 cts. 

Cement, at $1.60 per bbl 4.5 cts. 

Labor, at $1.83 per day 3.8 cts. 

Total, per sq. ft 10.3 cts. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIOlSf. 



366 



The labor of making the blocks includes mixing, mold- 
ing, sprinkling, piling and re-piling during or after cur- 
ing. The average output per man was 48% sq. ft. (1% cu. 
yds.) per day. 

The 10% cts., however, does not include all costs of 
manufacture, for it does not include interest, depreciation 
and repairs, purchase of improved machinery, superin- 




FIG. 18. 
tendence and office expense. One maker who turned out 
20,000 blocks (40 car loads) had a general expense of near- 
ly 5 cts. per sq. ft., besides the above given 10% cts. The 
selling price of 10-in. blocks averaged 21 cts. per sq. ft. of 
wall. 

Cost of a Concrete-Steel Sewer.— Mr. Geo. S. Pierson 

gives the following data: 

A concrete-steel sewer 1,080 ft. long at Kalamazoo, Mich., 
was begun Nov. 3, 1902, and finished Jan. 10, 1903. The 
work was done by day labor for the city. Much of the 
work was done at a temperature of 12° to 25°. The sewer 
arch has a span of 9 ft. 10 ins., and the sewer is 6 ft. high 
from invert to crown. The arch is 8 ins. thick at the 
crown, and the invert is 6 ins thick. Fig. 18. The concrete 
was reinforced with woven wire fabric of No. 11 steel wires. 



.3*66 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

The concrete was 1 cement to 6 gravel and sand, but this 
proportion was not strictly adhered to. The centers were 
built in sections 12 14 ft. long, and there were 6 arch sec- 
tions and 12 invert sections. The ribs for the arch centers 
were of 2-in. pine, and were 2 ft. apart. The sheeting was 
1-in. dressed white pine. The average gang was 10 men 
mixing and wheeling concrete, 5 men placing and ram- 
ming, and 4^ men moving and setting up forms. This 
gang averaged 18.6 lin. ft. of sewer per day, the best day's 
work being 28 lin. ft. There were 0.95 cu. yds. of con- 
crete per lin. ft. of sewer. Wages were $1.75 a day. The 
cost per lineal foot was as follows, including superintend- 

ence * 

Per lin. ft. Per cu. yd. 

1.18 bbls. cement $2.44 $2.56 

Sand and gravel u.42 0.44 

Labor mixing and wheeling (10 men) . 0.98 1.03 

Labor placing and ramming (5 men). 0.47 0.50 
Labor moving and setting forms (4i/^ 

men) 0.43 0.45 

Cost of forms and templates 0.30 0.32 

Metal fabric (175 lin. ft. No. 11 wire) 0.39 0.41 

Finishing 0.09 0.10 

Tools, general expenses and superin- 
tendence , 0.43 0.45 

Total $5.95 $6.26 

The cost of excavation and backfilling is not included. 
It will be noted that the cost of moving and setting the 
forms was unnecessarily high. Compare this cost of 45 
cts. per cu. yd. with the 5 cts. per cu. yd., at Wilmington, 
Del., in the next case cited. 

Cost o£ Concrete-Steel Seiver, 'Wilmington, Del. — ■ 

Mr, T. Chalkley Hatton, M. Am. Soc. C. E., gives the fol- 
lowing data: Fig. 19 shows a profile of Price's Run Sewer, 
Wilmington, Del., built in 1903, by day labor for the city, 
the working day being 8 hrs. long. Fig. 20 shows cross- 
sections at different points. The notable feature is the 
boldness in the design of such thin concrete shells for 
isewers of such large diameters. The cross-sections of 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 



867 



sewers in trenches deep enough to cover the arch are 
marked "deep cutting"; the sections where the arch pro- 
jects above the ground surface are marked * 'light cutting." 
The section through the marsh was 700 ft. long, the cut- 
ting being 8 ft. deep, and at high tide the marsh was flooded 
1 to 4 ft. The material was a soft mud that would pull a 
tight rubber boot from a workman's foot. The cost of 
this marsh excavation including ^cofferdams, underdrain- 
ing, pumping, etc., was $4.60 per cu. yd. For 1,100 ft. the 
914, ft. sewer was through a cut 22 to 34 ft. deep, the ma- 
terial being clay underlaid by granite. A Oarson-Liidger- 




40 "^45 ^ 

Black Marsh A 

Fine Sand-^^j' f^ock. 
Coarse Sand ^ 

PIG. 19. 

wood cableway was used. Although the crown of the arch 
was but 8 ins. thick, ,it withstood the shock of dumping 
1 cu. yd. buckets of earth and rock from heights of 3 to 
10 ft; and the weight of 25 ft. of loose filling caused no 
cracks in the concrete. 

Concrete was placed in 4-in. layers (the depth of the 
lagging) and well rammed, since it was found that "wet" 
concrete left small honeycomhed spaces on the inner sur- 
face. Concrete for the invert was 1:2:6, the stone being 
ly2-in. and smaller, and the sand being crusher dust. The 
arch was 1:2:5. 

The reinforcing metal used in the 9%-ft. sewer was No. 
6 expanded metal, 6-in. mesh, in sheets 8 x 5i/^ ft., supplied 
by Merritt & Co., of Philadelphia. A single layer was 
placed around the sewer, 2 ins. from the inner surface, its 
position being carefully maintained by the men ramming, 




BAVDBOOK OF COST DATA. 
! 



PorHctnd Concrefz 
Wire Wovzn Mesh 



Wire Wovzn h/izsh 



Sec+Ion in Lio|h+ Cu-fring i 




Broken Sfone 



Sec+ion in De©p Cuthlncj. 

fhrtlomd Concretes. ' 
Wtrt mven Mesh 




Sec+ion in Lio|ht Ccrftinof 



|<-2'6^->j 
Section in DeepCu+^inq. 



Portland Concrei^ - 
Expanded Metoft 



Expanded Mei-otf 




-^"TC. Pipe 

Sec+ion in Deep Cu+fincf 



FIG. 20, 



Sec+ion through Marsh* 



CONCRETE CONSTRVCTlOm 369 

and with but little difficulty as the sheets were first bent 
to the radius of the circle. Elach sheet was lapped one 
mesh (6 ins.) over its neighbor at both ends and sides, and 
no sheets were wired except the top ones, which were lia- 
ble to displacement by men walking over them. 

The metal used on the rest of the work was a wire- 
woven fabric furnished by the Wight-Easton-Townsend 
Co., of New York. This fabric comes in rolls S^/^ ft. wide 
and 100 ft. to the roll. The wire is No. 8, with a 6 x 4-in. 
mesh. This fabric was placed by first cutting the sheets 
to the required length to surround the sewer entirely, em- 
bedding it in the concrete as fast as concrete was placed, 
in the same manner as was done with the expanded metal, 
except over the center where, on account of its pliability, 
the fabric was held the proper distance from the lagging 
by a number of 2-in. blocks which were removed as the 
concrete was placed. The wire cloth, being all in one sheet, 
can be placed a little more expeditiously than expanded 
metal, but, on the other hand, the expanded metal holds its 
position better in the concrete, since it is more rigid. 

I quote now from Mr. Hatton's letter to me: 'The 
major portion of concrete was mixed by machine at a cost 
of 66 cents per yard, including wheeling to place, coal and 
running of mixing machine, wages being $1.50 per day 
of 8 hrs. Stone was delivered alongside of machine and all 
material had to be wheeled in barrows upon the platform, 
and after mixing to the sewer. Placing and ramming con- 
crete around the forms cost 39 cts. per cu. yd., additional. 
Setting forms in invert cost 2 cts. per cu. yd., setting 
centers 7 cts. per cu. yd. Cost of setting forms and cen- 
ters includes placing steel metal. Each lineal foot of 
91^-ft. sewer contained 1 cu. yd. of concrete, although the 
section only calls for 0.94 cu. yd. The excess was usually 
wasted by falling over sides of forms or being made too 
thick at crown. 

*'This yard of 1:2:5 concrete cost in place as follows 
(record taken as an average of several days' run) : 

Cement, 1.31 bbls. at $1.30 $1,703 

Stone, 0.84 cu. yds. at $1.21 1.016 

Stone dust, 0.42 cu. yd. at $1.21 0.508 



370 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Labor at 18% cts. per hour 0.987 

Labor setting forms and setting metal 0.045 

Cost of forms (distributed over 1,800 ft. of sewer) 0.082 

40 sq. ft. expanded metal at 4i^ cts 1.700 

Labor plastering invert 0.070 

Cost per ft., or per cu. yd $6,111 

"The forms for the invert wfere made of 2-in. rough hem- 
lock boards cut out 4 ins. less diameter than the diameter 
of the sewer, except for 18 ins. at the bottom of the form 
which coincided with the inside form of sewer. The bottom 
of the sewers was laid to the bottom of this form before 
it was set. Then the lagging, consisting of 2 x 6-in. x 16-ft. 
hemlock planed, was placed against each side of the form, 
one at a time, and the concrete brought to the line of this 
top in 6-in. layers until the whole invert was finished. 
These forms were set in 16 ft. sections, five to each section. 

*'The centers consisted of seven ribs of 2-in. hemlock upon 
which was nailed 1%-in. lagging, 2 ins. wide, tongued and 
grooved, and were 16 ft. long, non-collapisable, but had 
one wing on each side, 9 ins. wide, which could be wedged 
out to fit any inaccuracies in the invert. We used four of 
these centers setting two at each operation and worked 
from two ends. We left the centers in for 18 hours before 
drawing. 

"The cost of the concrete on the smaller sewers was the 
same as are the larger sewers, but the steel metal cost 
less, as it was wire woven metal that cost 2% cts. per sq. 
it. It was much easier handled and cut to no waste as it 
came in long rolls and was very pliable. 

"After training our men, which occupied about one week 
or 10 days, we had no difficulty in getting the concrete well 
placed around the metal, preserving the proper location 
of the latter, which, however, ibore constant watching, as a 
careless workman would often take the temporary support- 
ing blocks and allow the metal to rest against the wooden 
center, in which case the metal would show through the 
surface inside of the sewer. The metal was kept 2 ins. away 
from the inside forms and the arch. To keep it at this loca- 
tion we had several 2-in. wooden blocks cut which were 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 371 

slipped under the v/ire or expanded metal and as soon as 
some concrete was pushed under the wire at this point the 
block was removed. 

"After the forms were removed the invert needed plas- 
tering, but the arch was practically like a smoothly plas- 
tered wall except where it joined the invert, where it fre- 
quently showed the result of too much hurry in depositing 
the first loads of concrete on the arch. We remedied this by 
requiring less concrete to be deposited at the start, thus 
giving the rammers time to place the material properly. 

''An interesting result was obtained in the smoothness 
of the inside surface by using a mixture of different sized 
stones. When %-in. stones or smaller were used in the 
arch, the inside was honeycombed; but, where 1 to 1%-in. 
stones (nothing smaller) were used, the inside was per- 
fectly smooth, and the same was true of the invert, show- 
ing that the use of larger stones is an advantage and se- 
cures more monolithic work. When the run of the crush- 
er from 1% to %-in. stones was used the work was not at 
all satisfactory. 

"The difference in cost of mixing by hand and machine 
Is practically nothing on this kind of work. As the moving 
of the machine to keep pace with the progress of the work 
equals the extra cost of mixing by hand when the mixing 
can be done close to the point where the cement is being 
placed." 

The total cost of the sewers, inclutiing excavation, etc., 
was: 

Cost per lin. ft. 

9%-ft. sewer through marsh $32.00 

Qi^-ft. sewer in cut averaging 24i^ ft 24.00 

6%-ft. sewer in cut averaging 12 ft 10.00 

5-ft. sewer in cut averaging II14 ft 6.70 

Cost of Concrete^Steel Seiver at Cleveland, O. — Mr. 

Walter C. Parmley, M. Am. Soc C. E., gives the following 
data: There were 3i/^ miles of concrete-steel sewer, 13% 
ft. diameter, of section shown in Fig. 21 (taken from a 
cut in Engineering Record, Aug. 29, 1903). The contract 
price was $62 per lin. ft., including excavation, and the ex- 
cavation averaged 20 cu. yds. per lin. ft. The bid for a 
brick sewer was $75 per lin. ft. 



372 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



It will be noted that there are two rows of "anchor bars** 
buried in the side walls. The invert and side walls were 
first built up as high as the top of the brick lining, then 
the arch centers were placed, and the steel skeleton was 
bolted to the anchor bars. The ribs of this steel skeleton 
were spaced 15 ins. centers, and there were 8 rows of hori- 
zontal or longitudinal bars of 1% x %-in. steel bolted to the 
ribs. The metal was all bent to shape in the shop, so that 
there was no field work except to place and bolt the metal 



r Portland Cement Morfar^ 
2'H 




Section of Main Intercepting Sewer 
FIG. 21. 



together. There were 93 lbs. of steel per lin. ft. of sewer. 
This design of steel skeleton was patented by Mr. Parmley. 
The lagging of the arch centers was covered with build- 
ing paper water-proofed with parafine. Then Portland 
cement mortar 2 to 3 ins. thick was plastered on the paper, 
so as to form the interior finish of the arch. Then the con- 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 373 

Crete for the arch was placed and rammed, being 12 ins. 
thick at the crown and 15 ins. thick at the spring line. No 
outside forms were used on the arch. The arch concrete 
was 1:3:71/^. When the paper lining was pulled off a smooth 
surface was left. The invert concrete was made with 
natural cement. 

Mr. Parmley had an inspector keep a record of progress 
for several days on the work, when the men did not know 
they were being timed. He Informs me that an 8-hour 
shift was worked. The labor cost of building 40 lin. ft. of 
13%-ft. concrete-steel sewer was as follows: 

Cost of Labor on 40 lin. ft. of Sewer. 

Labor placing anchor bars (1,500 lbs) : 

1 maif 1 day, at $3.50 $3.50 

1 man 1 day, at $L75 1.75 

1 man 1/2 day, at $1.60 0.80 

Placing 1,500 lbs. steel, at 0.4 cts $6.05 

Labor on concrete invert and side walls: 

5 men mixing and wheeling, at $1.75 $8.75 

1 man tamping 1.75 

1 man carrying concrete 1.75 

% man lowering concrete, at $2.25 1.50 

Labor, 13 cu. yds. concrete, at $1.06 $13.75 

Labor on shale brick lining (2 rings) : 

2 masons, at $5.60 $11.20 

1 man mixing mortar 2.25 

3 men wheeling sand, filling buckets and dumping, 

at $1.75 5.25 

Vs man lowering materials, at $2.25 0.7^ 

Labor, 6.38 cu. yds. brick work, at $3.05 $19.45 

Labor on concrete arch: 

1 man putting mortar lining on centers, 3 days, 

at $L75 $5.25 

2 men mixing mortar, screening and wheeling sand, 

3 days, at $1.75 10.50 



374 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

8 men on mixing board, 3 days, at $1.75 $42.00 

1 man tamping, 3 days, at $1.75 5.25 

Labor, 72 cu. yds., at $0.87 $63.00 

Labor placing centers and steel skeleton: 

1 man, 3 days, at $3.50 $10.50 

2 men, 3 days, at $1.75 10.50 

Labor, 40 lin. ft, at 52i^ cts. per ft $21.00 

There were 56 lbs. of steel skeleton per lin. ft, and about 
Vs the time of this last gang of 3 men was spent in plac- 
ing the metal, % being spent in moving and placing the 
centers; so the labor cost 0.3 cts. per lb. of steel, and the 
labor moving centers cost 35 cts. per lin. ft. of sew^r. The 
back filling was begun 6 to 12 hrs. after the arch was 
built, but the centers were left in place 14 days. 

On another section of this sewer a six-day observation 
showed the labor cost (hand work, no machine mixers) 
was 81 cts. per cu. yd. of concrete in the invert and side- 
walls, and 70 cts. per cu. yd. on the concrete in the arch; 
36 cts. per lin. ft. for placing centers, and 18 cts. per lin. ft 
for placing the steel skeleton; 0.32 cts. per lb. for placing 
the anchor rods. A gang of 2 brick masons and 6 laborers 
laid 11.2 cu. yds. of the double-ring brick lining per day, 
at a cost of $2 per cu. yd. All wages were as above given. 
It will be seen that this longer observation gave much lower 
costs than above tabulated, and Mr. Parmley regards it 
as being nearer a fair average. 

Cost of a Concrete-Steel Conduit.— To Mr. G. C. Wool- 
lard, engineer for James Stewart & Co., contractors, I am 
indebted for the following data relating to the construc- 
tion of a 6-ft concrete-steel conduit in the Cedar Grove 
Reservoir, near Newark, N. J. Two conduits, side by side, 
were built across the bottom of the reservoir from the gate 
house to a tunnel outlet Since the conduits are to be sub- 
merged, a small amount of leakage at end joints is not ob- 
jectionable. 

Trial sections of the conduits were tested under hydro- 
static pressure; one of the conduits broke under an internal 



C 01^ CRETE CONSTRUCTION. 



375 



pressure of 15 lbs. per sq. in., rupture taking place at a Joint 
near the springing line of the arch where work had been 
s-topped over night during construction. Another fiection. 







'V 






,'•?•; '■^Z''*:' ■.*^." * 



■^l:J^T>y 



'^ 'Vutslafe Form Boarc^s J0x2"xd'(?"Lonq 
^'e'i<6"xd"PosfSj every B'o" 



M 



I e4t^ I gg*:!?* , got!? , tell' , ^9•t^ , gi^t , gs's* , 



K45'— >K-^'— >l 



N 



FIG. 22. 



in which no stopping had occurred, resisted a pressure of 
34 lbs. per sq. in.; but the leakage of the wooden bulkhead 
used in the test prevented applying a greater pressure. 
The concrete was 1.2:5, no stone exceeding IV^ ins. being 



376 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

used. Expanded metal. No. 10 steel with a 3-in. mesh, 
weighing 0.56 lbs. per sq. ft, made by the Aissociated Ex- 
panded Metal Companies, was used. When construction 
was begun the sheets of expanded metal were bent up into 
the middle wall, but it was found that the inclined part of 
the metal acted as a screen to separate the mortar from the 
stone. Hence the form of the metal was made as in 
Fig. 22. 

"The particular thing that was insisted upon by both 
Mr. M. R. Sherrerd, the chief engineer of the Newark Water 
Department, and Mr. Carlton E. Davis, the resident engineer 
at Cedar Grove Reservoir, in connection with these con- 
duits, was that they be built without sections in their cir- 
cumference, that the whole of the circumference of any one 
section of the length should be constructed at one time. 
They were perfectly willing to allow us to build the conduit 
in any length section we desired, so long as we left an ex- 
pansion joint occasionally which did not leak. 

"The good construction of these conduits was demon- 
strated later, when the section stood 40 lbs. pressure to the 
square inch, and, in addition, I may say that these conduits 
have not leaked at all since their construction. This shows 
the wisdom of building the conduit all round in one piece, 
that is, in placing the concrete over the centers all at one 
time, instead of building a portion of it, and then com- 
pleting that portion later, after the lower portion had had 
an opportunity to set. 

"The centers which I designed on this work were very 
simple and inexpensive, as will be gathered from the cost 
of the work, when I state that this conduit, which mea- 
sured only 0.8 cu. yd. of concrete to the lineal foot of smgle 
conduit, cost only $6.14 per cu. yd., built with Atlas cement, 
including all labor and forms and material, and expanded 
metal. The forms were built in 16 ft. lengths, each 16 ft. 
length having five of the segmental ribbed centers such as 
are shown in Fig. 22, viz., one center at each end and three 
intermediate centers in the length of 16 ft. These seg- 
ments were made by a mill in Newark and cost 90 cts. 
apiece, not including the bolts. We placed the lagging on 
these forms at the reservoir, and it was made of ordinary 
2x4 material, surfaced on both sides, with the edges bev- 
elled to the radius of the circle. These pieces of 2 x 4 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION, 377 

were nailed with two lOd. nails to each segment. The seg- 
ments were held together by four i/^-in. bolts, which passed 
through the center, and 1%-in. wooden tie block. There 
was no bottom segment to the circle. This was left open, 
and the whole form held apart by a piece, B, of 3x2 
spruce, with a bolt at each end bolted to the lower segment 
on each side. 

"The outside forms consisted of four steel angles to each 
16 ft. of the conduit, one on each end, and two, back to 
back, in the middle of each 16 ft. length. These angles 
were 2x3, with the 2-in. side on the conduit, and the 3-in. 
side of the angle had small lugs bolted on it at intervals, 
to receive the 2 x 12 plank, which was slipped down on the 
outside of the conduit, as it was raised in height. The 
angles were held from kicking out at the bottom by stakes 
driven into the ground, and held together at the top by a 
i/^-in. tie-rod. 

'The conduit was 8 ins. thick, save at the bottom, where 
it was 12 ins. The reason for the 12 ins. at the bottom was 
that the forms had to have a firm foundation to rest on, in 
order to put all the weight required by the conduit on them 
in one day or at one time, without settling. We therefore 
excavated the conduit to grade the entire length, and de- 
posited a 4-in. layer of concrete to level and grade over the 
entire length of the conduit line. This gave us a good, firm 
foundation, true and accurate to work from, and this is the 
secret of the good work which was done on these conduits. 
If you examine them, you will say that they are one ot the 
neatest jobs of concrete in this line that has been built, 
especially with regard to the inside, which is true, level and 
absolutely smooth. [The author can confirm this state- 
ment] When the conduit is filled with water, it falls off 
with absolutely no point where water stands in the conduit 
owing to its being out or the proper amount of concrete not 
being deposited. 

"The centers were placed in their entirety on a new 
length of conduit to be built, resting upon four piles of 
brick, two at each end as shown. The first concrete was 
placed in the forms at the point marked X and the next 
concrete was dropped in through a trap door cut in the roof 
of the conduit form at the point marked Y. This material 
was dropped in to form the invert, and this portion was 



378 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

shaped by hand with trowels and screened to the exact 
radius of the conduit. The concrete was then placed con- 
tinuously up the sides, and boards were dropped in the 
angles which I have mentioned, and which served as out- 
side form holders till the limit was reached at the top, 
where it was impossible to get the concrete in under the 
planking and thoroughly tamped. At this point the top 
was formed by hand and with screeds. 

''Each 16-ft. length of this concrete was made with op- 
posite ends male and female respectively, that is, we had a 
small form which allowed the concrete to step down at one 
end to 3 ins. in thickness for 8 ins. back from the end of the 
section, and on the other end of the section it allowed it to 
step down to 3 ins. in thickness in exactly the opposite way, 
making a scarf joint. This was not done at every 16 ft. 
length, unless only 16 ft. were placed in one day. We 
usually placed 48 ft. a day at one end of the conduit with 
one gang of men. This was allowed to set 24 hours, and, 
whatever length of conduit was undertaken in a day, was 
absolutely completed, rain or shine, and the gang next day 
resumed operations at the other end of the conduit on an- 
other 48 ft. length. This was completed, no matter what 
the weather conditions were, and, towards the close of this 
day the forms placed on the preceding day were being 
drawn and moved ahead. 

"The method used in moving these forms ahead for an- 
other day's work is probably one of the secrets of the low 
cost of this work, and it is one which we have never seen 
employed before. The bolt at A, Fig. 22, was taken out, and 
the tie brace B thrown up. We had hooks at the points C. 
A turnbuckle was thrown in, catching these hooks, and 
given several sharp turns, causing the entire form to spring 
downward and inwards, which gave it just enough clear- 
ance to be carried forward, without doing any more strik- 
ing of forms than pulling the bolt at A. This method of 
pulling the forms worked absolutely satisfactorily, and 
never gave any trouble, and we were able to move the forms 
very late in the day and get them all set for next day's 
work, giving all the concrete practically 24 hours' set, as we 
always started concreting in the morning at the furthest 
end of the form set up and at the greatest distance from the 
old concrete possible in the 48 ft. length, as the furthest 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 379 

form had, of course, to be moved first, it being impossible 
to pass one form through the other. 

''Six 16-ft. sections of these forms were built, and three 
were used each day on each end, as shown by the diagram 
MN, Fig. 22, which gives the day of the month for the com- 
pletion of each of seven 48-ft. sections. 

"A gang of men simply shifted on alternate days from 
end to end of the conduit, although several sections were in 
progress at one time; and of course, finally, when a junc- 
tion was made between any division, say of 1,000 ft. to an- 
other 1,000 ft., one small form was left in at this junc- 
tion inside of the conduit, and had to be taken down and 
taken out the entire length of the conduit. 

''The centers for a 16-ft. length of this conduit cost com- 
plete for labor and material, $18.30, but they were used 
over and over again; and, after this conduit was completed, 
they were taken away for use at other points, so that the 
cost is hardly appreciable, and the only charge to centers 
that we made after the first cost of building the centers, was 
on account of moving them daily. Part of this conduit was 
built double (two 6-ft. conduits) and part single, the only 
difference being that, where the double conduit was built, 
two forms were placed side by side, and not so much was 
undertaken in one day. 

"These conduits, when completed and dried out, rung 
exactly like a 60-in. cast-iron pipe, when any one walked 
through them or stamped on the bottom." 

Mr. Woollard gives the following analysis of the cost per 
cubic yard of the concrete-steel conduit above described: 

Per cu. yd. 

1.3 bbl. cement $1.43 

10 cu. ft. sand 0.35 

25 cu. ft. stone 1.10 

26 sq. ft. expanded metal, at 3 cts 0.78 

Loading and hauling materials 2,000 ft. to the mix- 
ing board (team at $4.50) 0.50 

Labor mixing, placing, and ramming 1.38 

Labor moving forms 0.60 

Total $6.14 

Wages were llVo cts. per hr. for laborers and 50 cts. per 



380 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

hr. for foremen. The concrete was 1:2:5, a barrel being 
assumed to be 3.8 cii. ft. The concrete was mixed by hand 
on platforms alongside the conduit. The cost ot placing 
and ramming was high, on account of the expanded metal, 
the small space in which to tamp, and to the screeding cost. 
When forms were moved they were scraped and brushed 
with soft soap before being used again. 

From Mr. Morris R. Sherrerd, Engr. and Supt., Dept. of 
Water, Newark, N. J., I have received the following data 
which differ slightly from those given by Mr. Woollard. 
The differences may be explained by the fact that the cost 
records were made at different times. Mr. Sherrerd states 
(Sept. 26, 1904) that each batch contains 4 cu. ft. of cement, 
8 cu. ft. of sand, and 20 cu. ft. of stone, making 22 cu. ft. 
of concrete in place. One bag of cement is assumed to 
hold.l cu. ft. He adds that a 10-hr. day's work for a gang 
is 63 lin. ft. of single 6-ft. conduit containing 47.4 cu. yds. 
of concrete and 1,260 sq. ft. of expanded metal. This is 
equivalent to % cu. yd. of concrete per lin. ft. The total 
cost of material for one complete set of forms 64 ft. long 
was $160; and there were 7 of these sets required to keep 
two gangs of men busy, each gang building 63 lin. ft. of 
conduit a day. Since the total length of the conduit was 
3,850 ft, the first cost of the material in the forms was 18 
cts. per lin. ft. 

Cost of Labor on 6-ft. Conduit: 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 
1 foreman on concrete $3.35 $0.07 

1 water boy 0.75 0.01 

11 men mixing at $1.75 19.25 0.39 

5 " mixing at $1.50 7.50 0.16 

4 " loading stone at $1.40 5.60 0.12 

4 " wheeling stone at $1.40 5.60 0.12 

2 " loading sand at $1.40 2.80 0.06 

2 " wheeling sand at $1.40 2.80 0.06 

1 " placing concrete at $1.75 1.75 0.04 

6 '* placing concrete at $1.50 9.0O 0.19 

2 " supplying water at $1.50 3.00 0.06 

1 ** placing expanded metal at $2.... 2.00 0.04 

1 '' placing expanded metal at $1.50. 1.50 0.03 

Total labor on concrete $64.90 $1.35 



CO'NCRETE CONSmVOTION. S81 

Cost of Labor Moving Forms: ^ 

Per day. Per cu. yd. 

4 carpenters placing forms $13.00 $0.27 

2 helpers '' " 4.00 0.08 

1 carpenter putting up boards for outside 

forms 2.75 0.06 

1 helper putting up boards for outside 

forms 2.25 0.05 

2 helpers putting up boards for outside 

forms 3.50 0.07 

1 team hauling lumber -1.50 0.09 

1 helper hauling lumber 1.75 0.04 

Total labor moving forms $31.75 $0.66 

It will be noted that it required two men to bend and 
place the 700 lbs., or 1,260 sq. ft., of expanded metal required 
for 63 lin. ft. of conduit per day, which is equivalent to 5 
cts. per lb., or 3 cts. per sq. ft, for the labor of shaping, 
placing and fastening the metal. 

Concrete-steel Conduit for the Jersey City Water 
Supply Co. — In Engineering Record, Jan. 16, 1904, p. 72, 
the following data are given relating to a conduit similar 
to the one just described. The concrete was 1:7 of sand 
and trap rock ballast, 100 lbs. of cement being assumed to 
measure 1 cu. ft. The ballast was run of crusher, the 
crusher being set to break 2-in. stone. The concrete was 
mixed with Ransome and with Smith mixers mounted on 
trucks. 

The concrete was mixed wet, like a thin mush, so that it 
would flow down on an iron trough having an 8 to 1 slope 
The concrete flowed from the trough into dish-shaped 
shoveling boards which were on top of the arch centers, 
whence it was shoveled with large coal scoops into place. 
Forks and tamping bars were used for working the con- 
crete against the forms so as to leave no voids. The cross- 
section of the conduit is shown in Pig. 23. This section 
was used for all depths of earth back flll up to 10 ft. Where 
the back flll was 15 ft. deep a heavier section, with a crown 
8 ins. thick, was used. Ransome twisted rods were used 
for reinforcement. In no case was any difiiculty experi- 
enced in keeping the reinforcing rods in their proper posi- 



382 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



tions provided a little watchfulness was exercised while 
placing the concrete. 

The centers were made in sections 12% ft. long, consisting 
of 11 parts, no part weighing more than could be readily- 
handled — 200 lbs. The %-in. lagging was covered with 
sheet steel, which was scraped clean and greased with cheap 
vaseline cut with kerosene oil. The sole duty of one man 
was to clean and grease the forms. The lagging on the 
bottom of the centers was omitted for a width of 6 ft., and 
the face of the invert was shaped by screeding and trowel- 






II .^'j 

41 "• 







of 
'Section 

Secfions in stiff Earth anoTRocI^. 
FIG. 23. 

ing. No outside forms were employed for a width of 5 ft. 
over the top of the arch. The centers were supported on 
6-in. cubes of concrete built into the work. Concrete was 
first deposited on the outside and forced under by tamping 
bars until it appeared on the inside. A trap-dooir, 2 ft. 
square, was left in the crown of each arch through which 
concrete was shoveled for the invert. After finishing the 
invert the walls were carried up by placing outside forms 
in sections 2 ft. high. At the end of each day's work a 
bonding groove was made in the end of the last sectio'n of 
concrete. 

On one section for 65 working days a gang of 38 men aver- 
aged 40 lin. ft. of conduit per 10-hr. day. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 3S3 

Cost of Bush-Hammering Concrete. — ^Mr. C. R. Neher 
states that a concrete face can be bush-hammered by an 
ordinary laborer at the rate of 100 sq. ft. in 10 hrs., at a 
cost of 1% cts. per sq. ft. The cost of forms saved by using 
rough lumber goes a long way toward covering the co^t of 
bush-hammering. The front of the Dakota elevator in 
Buffalo, N. Y., was bush-hammered. Bush-hammering re- 
moves stains due to efflorescence. 

Ransome says that bush-hammering concrete costs ll^ to 
2y2 cts. per sq. ft., wages of common laborers being 15 cts. 
per hr. 

The walls of the Pacific Borax Co. factory at Bayonne, 
N. J., were dressed by hand at the rate of 100 to 200 sq. ft. 
per day; but most of the dressing was done with a pneu- 
matic hammer, with which a man was able to dress 300 to 
600 sq. ft. per day. 

At the Harvard Stadium I timed men working with pneu- 
matic hammers, using a tool like an ice chopper with a saw- 
tooth cutting blade. One man dressed a wall at the rate of 
50 sq. ft. per hr., but I was told that 200 sq. ft. was 
a 10-hr. day's work. I am inclined to think, however, that 
much more than 200 sq. ft. a day could be averaged. Com- 
mon laborers are used for this sort of work. 

The cost of operating pneumatic hammers, when gasolene 
is used for power, is given in section on Bridges. 

Kubble Concrete Data.— By some engineers it is be- 
lieved that rubble concrete, particularly for dam construc- 
tion, is a very new form of masonry. In Trans. Am. Soc. 
C. E., 1875, Mr. J. J. R. Croes describes work on the Boyd's 
Corner Dam on the Croton River, near New York. This 
work was begun in 1867, and for a time rubble concrete 
was used, but was finally discontinued, due to the impres- 
sion that it might not be water-tight. In those days 
^'sloppy" concrete would not have been allowed, which prob- 
ably accounts for the difficulty of getting a water-tight 
rubble concrete. The specifications called for a dry con- 
crete that had to be thoroughly rammed in between the 
rubble stones; and, to give room for this ramming, the con- 
tractor was not permitted to lay any two stones closer 
together than 12 ins. As a re;sult, not more than 33% of 



384 HAISWBOOK OF COST DATA. 

the masonry was rubble stones, the rest being the concrete 
between the stones. Mr. Croes states that most of the 
bidders erred in assuming that 66% to 75% of the ma^sonry 
would be rubble stones. 

In an editorial article in Engineering News, July 16, 
1903, I have discussed some features of rubble concrete 
construction, which it may be well to summarize here. In 
the first place, the form of the rubble stones as they come 
from the quarry should be considered. Stones that have 
flat beds, like many sandstones and limestones, can be laid 
upon layers of "dry" concrete, and can have their vertical 
joints readily filled with concrete rammed into place. But 
granites and other stones that break out Irregularly, can 
not be well bedded in concrete unless it is made so soft as 
to be "sloppy." In thin retaining walls, small, irregular 
stones may be forced into concrete by jumping upon them, 
men wearing rubber boots. 

When stones come out flat bedded, if it lis desired to 
economize cement, make the bed joints of ordinary 
mortar (not concrete), and fill the vertical joints with con- 
crete. 

Generally it is an absurd practice to break up large 
blocks of stone in a crusher for the purpose of making the 
whole of a heavy wall of concrete, since rubble concrete re- 
quires not only less cement but effects a saving in crush- 
ing. There are exceptions, however. For example, the 
anchorages of the Manhattan Bridge in New York City are 
specified to be of rubble concrete, doubtless because the 
designer believes this sort of masonry to be cheaper than 
concrete. In this caise an economic mistake has been made, 
for all the rubble stone must be quarried up the Hudson 
River, loaded into scows, unloaded onto cars, and finally 
unloaded and delivered by derricks. Now this repeated 
handling of large, irregular rubble stones is so expensive 
that it more than offsets the cost of crushing, as well as the 
extra cost of cement in plain concrete. €irushed stone can 
be unloaded from boats by means of clam-shell dredge 
buckets at a low cost. It can be transported on a belt con- 
veyor, elevated in a bucket conveyor, mixed with sand and 
cement, and delivered to the work, all with very little 



CONCRETE CONSTRVCTION. 385 

manual labor where the installation of a very efficient 
plant is justified by the magnitude of the job. Large 
rubble stoneis, on the other hand, can not be handled so 
cheaply nor with ajs great rapidity as crushed stone. Elach 
particular piece of work, therefore, must be treated as a 
separate problem in engineering economics; for no un- 
qualified generalization as to the relative cheapness of this 
or that kind of masonry is to be relied upon. 

In Engineering Record, Aug. 8, 1903, the construction of 
the Boonton Dam, Boonton, N. J., is described. The dam 
is of Cyclopean masonry, that is, of large rubble stones 
bedded in concrete. The concrete was made so wet that 
when the stones were dropped into it the concrete flowed 
into every crevice. The granite rubble stones measured 
from 1 to 2% cu. yds. each. It iis estimated that only 40 to 
45% of the dam is concrete, the rest being rubble. The 
materials were all delivered on oars, from which they were 
delivered to the dam by derricks provided with bull-wheels. 
On the dam were 4 laborers and 1 mason to each derrick, 
and this gang dumped concrete and joggled the rubble 
stones into it. A derrick has laid as much as 125 icu. yd;s. 
of masonry in 10 hrs. With 35 derricks, 20 of which were 
laying miasonry and 15 either passing materials to the 
other derricks, or being moved, as much as 21,000 cu. yds. of 
masonry were laid in one month. The amount of cement 
per cubic yard of masonry is variously stated to have 
been 0.6 to 0.75 bbl. 

In the construction of a dry dock at the Charleston Navy 
Yard, rubble concrete was used. The rubble stones aver- 
aged about % cu. yd. each, and were spaced about 18 ins. 
apart. About 67% of the m'asonry was 1:2:5 concrete, leav- 
ing 33% of rubble stones. 

In Engineering News, June 18, 1903, the Spier Falls Dam, 
on the upper Hudson River, is described. This dam is of 
Cyclopean masonry, the rubble stones being very large 
pieces of granite, which are bedded in 1:2%: 5 concrete. At 
the time of my visit to the dam, it was estimated that about 
33% of the masonry was concrete. I have recently been 
informed by Mr. C. E. Parsons, the chief engineer, that 
about 1 bbl. of cement was used in each cubic yard of ma- 



386 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

sonry. This high percentage of cement may be accounted 
for by the fact that there was a good deal of plain rubble 
laid in cement moirtar, no accurate record of which was 
kept. At the time of my visit, three Ranisome mixers were 
being used, two for concrete and one for mortar. E'ach 
concrete mixer averaged 200 batches in 10 hours, of 23 
cu. ft. of concrete per batch. I am inclined to think, from 
inspection of the masonry during the time it was being 
laid, that about 40% of the dam was rubble stones, -and the 
remaining 60% was concrete and mortar. The stones and 
concrete were delivered by cableways to stiff-leg derricks, 
which depois'ited the material in the dam. There were two 
laborers to each mason employed in placing the materials, 
wages being 15 cts. and 35 cts. per hr. reispectively. The 
la^bor cost of placing the materials was 60 cts. per cu. yd. 
of masonry. 

In Engineering News, July 7, 1904, a rubble concrete dam 
across the Chattahoochee, 17 miles north of Atlanta, Ga., 
is described and illustrated. The s'tone was a local gneiss 
that came out of the quarry in large slabs with parallel 
ibeds, some .stones containing 4 cu. yds. each. About 40% 
of the dam was of this rubble and 60% of concrete between 
the rubble stones. The concrete was a l:2l^:5 mixture. 

In Engineering News, Jan. 21, 1897, a description is 
given of the breakwater at Marquette, Mich., which was 
built of rubble concrete, the rubble stones amounting to 
27% of the volume of the breakwater masonry. 

The Hemet Dam, California, is built of granite rubble 
concrete, the concrete being a 1:3:6 mixture. The face 
stones of the dam were laid in mortar. There were 31,100 
cu. yds. of masonry, which required 20,000 bbls. of cement, 
or 0.64 bbl. per cu. yd. The cement was hauled 23 miles 
over roads having grades of 18% in places, the total ascent 
being 3,850 ft. The cost of hauling was $1 to $1.50 per bbl. 
The sand was conveyed 400 ft. from the river to the dam 
(by an endless double-rope carrier provided with V-shaped 
buckets spaced 20 ft. apart, the rise of the conveyor being 
125 ft. in the 400 ft. This was a simple and inexpensive 
conveyor. 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 387 

Some English Data on Rubble Concrete. — ^^The follow- 
ing is an abstract of an larticle from London "Emgineer- 
ing": Railway work, under Mr. John Strain, in Scotland 
and S-pain, involved the building of abutments, piers and 
archeiS of rubble concrete. The concrete was made of 1 part 
cement to 5 parts of ballast, the ballast consisting of broken 
stone or slag and sand mixed in proportions determined by 
experiment. The materials were mixed by turning with 
shovels 4 times dry, then 4 times moire during the addition 
of water through a rose nozzle. A bed of concrete 6 ins. 
thick was first laid, and on this a layer of rubble ^stones, no 
two stones being nearer together than 3 Ins., nor nearer 
the forms than 3 ins. The stones were rammed and probed 
around with a trowel to leave no spaces. Over each layer 
•of rubble, concrete was spread to a depth of 6 ins. The 
forms or molds for piers for a viaduct were simply large 
open boxeis, the four sides of which could be taken apart. 
The depth of the boxes was uniform, and they were num- 
bered from the top down, so that, knowing the height of a 
given pier, the proper box for the base could be selected. 
As each box was filled, the next one smaller in size was 
swung into place with a derrick. The following bridge 
piers for the Tharsls & Calanas Ry. were built: 



Name. 

Tamujoso River.... 

Oraque 

Cascabelero 


Length 

of 
Bridge. 

Ft. 

435 

423 

480 

294 

165 


Height 

of 

Piers, 

Ft. 

28 

31 

30 to 80 

28 to 50 

16 to 23 


No. 

of 
Spans. 

12 
11 

10 
7 
8 


Cu. Yds. 

in 

Piers. 

1,737 
1,590 
2,680 
1,046 
420 


Weeks 

to 
Build. 

14>^ 

15 

21 


No. 16 


16>ji 


Tlesa 


4 



It is stated that the construction of some of these piers 
in ordinary masonry would have taken four times as long. 
The rock available for rubble did not yield large blocks, 
consequently the percentage of pure concrete in the piers 
was large, averaging 70%. In one case, where the stones 
were smaller than usual, the percentage of concrete was 
761/2%. In other work the percentage has been as low as 
55%, and in still other work where a rubble face work was 
used the percentage of concrete has been 40%. 



388 



HAyBBOOK OF CO^T DATA, 



In these piers the average quantities of materials per 
cubic yard of rubble concrete were: 

448 lbs. (0.178 cu. yd.) cement. 

0.36 cu. yd. sand. 

0.68 'CU. yd. broken stone (measured loose in piles). 

0.30 cu. yd. rubble (measured solid). 

Several railway bridge piers and abutments in Scotland 
are cited. In one of these, large rubble stones of irregular 
size and weighing 2 tons each were set inside the forms, 
3 ins. away from the plank and 3 ins. from one another. 
The gang to each derrick was: 1 derrickman and 1 boy, 1 
mason and 10 laborers, and about one-quarter of the time 
of 1 carpenter and Ills helper raising the forms. For 
bridges of 400 cu. yds., the progresis was 12 to 15 cu. yds. a 
day. The forms were left in place 10 days. 

To chip off a few inches from the face of a concrete abut- 
ment that was too far out, required the work of 1 quarry- 
man 5 days per cu. yd. of solid concrete chipped off. 

Concrete was used for a skew arch over the River Doch- 
art, on the Killin Ry., Scotland. There were 5 arches, each 
of 30 ft. span on the square or 42 ft. on the iskew, the skew 
being 45°. The piers were of rubble concrete. The con- 
crete in the arch was wheeled 300 ft. on a trestle, and 
dumped onto the centers. It was rammed in 6-in. layers, 
which were laid corresponding to the courseis of arch 
stones. As the layers approached the crown of the arch, 
some difficulty was experienced in keeping the surfaces 
perpendicular. Each arch was completed in a day. 

In a paper by John W. Steven, in Proc. Inst. C. E., the 
following is given: 



Ardrossan Harbor. 

Irvine Branch 


Concrete 
per 

cu. yd. 

$6.00 

7.00 

7.08 


Rubble 

Concrete 

per 

cu. yd. 

$5.00 

3.68 

3.43 


Per Centi 
of Rubble 
in Rubble 
Concrete. 

20.0 

68.6 


Calanas & Tharsis Ry 


30.3 



Cost of a Rubble Concrete Abutment. — Mr. Emmet 
Steece gives the cost of 278 cu. yds. rubble concrete in a 
bridge abutment at Burlington, la., as follows: 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 389 

Per cu. yd. 

0.82 bbl. Saylor'iS Portland, at $2.60 $2.14 

0.22 cu. yd. sand, at $1 0.22 

0.52 cu. yd. broken stone, at $0.94 0.49 

0.38 cu. yd. rubble stones, at $0.63 0.24 

Water 0.07 

Labor (15 ots. per hr.) 1.19 

Foreman 0.09 

Total $4.44 

The concrete was l:2i^:4%, laid in 4-in. layers, on which 
were laid large rubble stones spaced about 6 ins. apart. 
Concrete was rammed into the spaces between the rubble, 
which was then covered with another 4-in. layer of con- 
crete, and so on. A force of 28 men and a foreman aver- 
aged nearly 40 cu. yds. of rubble concrete per day. The 
cost of lumber fo'r the forms i^ not included. The abut- 
ment was 3 ft. wide at top, 9 ft. at the base and 30 ft. high. 

Cost of Removing Efflorescence With Acid. — 

Effloreiscence, or **whitewash," on a concrete bridge at 
Washington, D. C, was removed by using hydrochloric 
(muriatic) acid and common scrubbing brushes; 30 gals, of 
acid and 36 scrubbing brushes were used to clean 250 sq. 
yds. of concrete. The acid was diluted with 4 or 5 parts 
water to 1 of acid; and water constantly played with a hose 
on the concrete while being cleaned to prevent penetration 
of the acid. One house-front cleaner and 5 laborers were 
employed, and the total cost was $150, or 60 cts. per sq. yd. 
This high cost was due to the difficulty of cleaning the bal- 
ustrades. It is thought that the cost of cleaning the span- 
drels and wing walls did not exceed 20 cts. per sq. yd. The 
cleaning was perfectly satisfactory. An experiment was 
made with wire brushes without acid, but the cost was 
$2.40 per sq. yd. The flour removed by the wire brushes 
was found by analysis to be silicate of lime. Acetic acid 
was tried in place of muriatic, but required more scrub- 
bing. 

Cost of Sylvester Wasli and Sylvester Mortar. — Mr. 

W. C. Hawley is authority for the following: A covered con- 



390 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Crete clear water well of the Apollo Water-Works Co. leaked, 
so it was plastered with a Sylvester mortar. A light colored 
soft soap was dissolved in water, 1^/4 lbs. soap to 15 gallons 
of water. Then 3 lbs. of powdered alum were mixed with 
each bag of cement. The mortar was 1:2. Two coats of 
this plaster were applied to the dry walls, giving a total 
thickness of % in. Leaking was thus stopped completely. 

The cost was: 

2 lbs. soap (with 24 gals, water), at 7% cts $0.15 

12 lbs. alum, at 3i^ cts 0.42 

Total .......: $0.57 

Or 57 cts. for soap and alum per barrel of Portland cement. 

In repairing the bottom of a reservoir lin^d with 4 to 6 
ins. of concrete which leaked, a Sylvester wash was used. 
The soap solution was % lb. of Olean soap to 1 gal. of 
water, and the alum solution was % lb. alum to 4 gals, 
v/ater; both well dissolved, soap solution being boiled. On 
the clean dry concrete the boiling hot soap solution was 
applied; 24 hrs. later the alum wash; 24 hrs. later the soap 
wash; 24 hrs. later the alum wash. Two men applied the 
solutions, using whitewash brushes, while a third man car- 
ried pails of the solution. In making the soap solution 
2 men attended 4 kettles, 1 man kept up fires, 2 men carried 
solution to men applying it. The alum solution required 
fewer men, being made cold in barrels. After applying the 
second soap wash to the concrete slopes, men had to be held 
by ropes to keep from slipping. The rope was placed 
around two men, who started work at top of the slope, a 
third man paying out on the rope. The work was done 
in 8% days, and the cost as follows: 

Labor: 

1,140 hrs. labor at 15 cts $171.00 

83 " foremen at 30 cts 24.90 

83 " waterboy at 6 cts 4.98 

Add for supt. 15% 30.13 

Total labor .$231.01 



CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. 391 

Materials: 

900 lbs. Olean soap at 4 1-3 cts $39.00 

210 " alum at 3 ots 6.30 

6 whitewash brushes (10-in), at $2.25 13.50 

6 stable brushes, $1.25 7.50 

Total materials $66.30 

Total labor and materials $297.31 

This covered 131,634 sq. ft., hence the cost of the two 
coats of soap and alum was $2.26 per 1,000 sq. ft, or 0.23 
ct. per sq. ft. All leaks but one from a slight crack were 
stopped. 

The concrete lining of a new reservoir near Wilmerding 
was waterproofed by using caustic potash and alum in the 
finishing mortar coat. The stock solution was 2 lbs. of 
caustic potash, and 5 lbs. of alum to IC qts. of water. This 
was made in barrel lots, from which 3 qts. were taken for 
each batch of finishing mortar, which consisted of 2 bags of 
cement mixed with 4 bags of sand; a batch of mo^rtar 
covered an area 6 f t. x 8 ft. x 1 in. thick. The extra cost of 
this waterproofing was: 

100 lbs. caustic potash at 10 cts $10.00 

70 " caustic potash at 9 ots 6.30 

960 " alum at 3%, 3% and 4 cts 34.38 

60 hrs. mixing at 15 cts. 9.00 

Fr't, express and hauling 11.50 

Total for 74,800 sq. ft $71.18 

So the cost was 95 cts. per 1,000 sq. ft., or less than 0.1 ct. 
per sq. ft. Hence the cost was less than by using Sylves- 
ter's wash and the result was better, for with Sylvester's 
wash ihe penetration is only 1-16 to %-in. It was found that 
if less than 2 parts of sand to 1 part of cement were used 
the mortar cracked in setting. Clean sand was imperative 
as any organic impurities soon decomposed, leaving soft 
spots. Do not use an excess of potash; a slight excess of 
alum, however, does not decrease the strength of the mor-^ 
tar. 



SECTION VII. 
COST OF WATER-WORKS. 

Cost of Loading and Hauling Cast Iron Pipe. — ^Three 
men assisted hy a driver averaged 5 lengths of 12-in. pipe 
loaded from a flat car ontoi a wagon in 12 mins. Planks 
were laid from the car to the wagon and the pipe was 
rolled down the plank runway. This same gang would 
unload a wagon in 6 mins. As each length of pipe weighed 
nearly % short ton, the wagon load was 2i^ tons. It, 
therefore, cost 5 cts. per ton to load and 2i^ cts. per toin to 
unload the wagons, wages of men 'being 15 cts. per hr.; 
but this does not include the lost time of the two horses 
during loading and unloading, which is equivalent to about 
2 cts. per ton. The total fixed cost of loading and unload- 
ing was 10 cts. per ton, including team time. The haul- 
ing costs 12 cts. per ton per mile, where 2^^ tons are the 
load (wages of team and driver 35 cts. per hr.), and the 
team returns empty. Good, hard, level roads are required 
for so large a load. See page 76 for discussion of team- 
ing. If the haul is short and this loading gang of 3 men 
walks along with the wagon, the cost of hauling becomes 
25 cts. per ton mile, instead of 10 cts. 

Pipe should never be shipped in hopper-bottom cars, for 
the difficulty of unloading adds very much to the cost. I 
have had a gang of 6 men who unloaded only 75 lengths of 
12-in. pipe in 10 hrs. from a hopper gondola, into wagons. 
Each length weighed 800 lbs., making 30 tons the day's 
work, at 30 cts. per ton. This work was by hand, no der- 
rick being available. 

Prices of Cast Iron Pipe Since 1882. — Figure 24 
shows the prices paid for cast iron pipe in cities and towns 
of the Central West, centering about Chicago, according 
to data collected by J. W. Alvord from pipe contracts a$ 
published in Engineering News. 



COST OF WATER-WORKS. 



393 



Weight of Cast Iron Pipe.— Pipe from 3 ins. to 60 
ins. diameter is cast in 12-ft. lengths, that is in lengths 
that require 440 pipe lengths to lay a mile ot pipe line; 
l^^-in. and 2-in. pipes are not often used, ibut when used 
are cast in shorter lengths. 

Table XVII gives the approximate weights of cast iron 



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FIG. 24. 

pipes. It is customary to paint the weight of each pipe in- 
side the pipe. As variations in single pipes of 5% from 
the listed weight are common, it is well to specify the maxi- 
mum average variation allowable. 

Water Pipe Trenches. — ^Trenches for water pipes in the 
northern part of America are usually 5 ft. deep from the 
surface of the street to the axis of the pipe. In the South, 
trenches are only 3 ft. deep. Water-pipe trenches are 
usually dug not less than 18 to 24 ins. wider than the in- 
side diameter of the pipe; and just before the pipes are 
laid a gang of men enlarges and deepens the trench for a 



394 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 






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COST OF WATER-WORKS. 395 

shO'i^t space where each pipe joint is to come; this is called 
digging the "bell-holes." The bell-holes enable the yar- 
ners oalkers to make the joints properly. It is usually not 
necessary to brace the sides of a trench that is only 5 or 
6 ft. deep. 

Cost of Trenching. — At Corning, N. Y., a trench for a 
10-in. water pipe was excavated 2i/^ ft. wide x 5 ft. deep, 
X 1,500 ft. long = 600 cu. yds. in 4i^ days by 24 men, or at 
the rate of 6 cu. 3^ds. per man per 10-hr. day, equivalent 
to 11 cts. a running foot or 25 cts. a cu. yd. The backfilling 
was done in 3 days by 2 men and 1 horse with driver, us- 
ing a drag scraper and a short length of rope so that the 
horse worked on one side of the trench while the two men 
handled the scraper on the opposite side, pulling the scraper 
directly across the pile of earth. In this way the back- 
filling was made at a cost of 1.1 cts. per lin. ft. or 2i/^ cts. 
per cu. yd., there being no ramming of the backfill re- 
quired. This is a remarkably low cost for backfilling, and 
one not ordinarily to be counted upon. The material was 
a loamy sand and gravel. 

At Rochester, N. Y., with the size of trench and kind of 
material practically the same as above: 
1 man excavated 8 cu. yds. a day at cost of 19 cts. per 

'CU. yd. 
1 man backfilled 16 cu. yds. a day at cost of 9 cts. per 

cu. yd. 
Total cost of excavation and backfill, 28 cts. per cu. yd. 

Cost of Trenching, Great Falls^ Mont.— ^The Great 
Falls (Montana) Water Co. excavated 25,500 cu. yds. of 
earth, 1,900 cu. yds. of loose rock, and 1,500 cu. yds. of 
solid rock, in trenching for a 6-in. water pipe. The work 
was done by company labor (not by contract), wages 'being 
$2.25 for laborers, and the cost was 34 cts. per cu. yd. 
for excavation and 3i^ cts. more per cu. yd. for backfilling 
and tamping. If wages had been $1.50 a day the cost 
would have been 23 cts. per cu. yd. for excavation and 2^ 
cts. per cu. yd. for backfilling. 

Cost of Trenching, Astoria, Oregon. — Mr. A. L. Adams, 
istates that in trenching for the Astoria (Oregon) Water- 



396 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



works, in 1896, the first contractor averaged only 7 to 8 
cu. yds. per man per day. Later on another co>ntractor, 
even in the rainy season, averaged nearly 10 cu. yds. per 
man per 10-hr. day of trenching (including backfilling), 
at a cost (including foreman) of IIV4, cts per cu. yd., wages 
being $1.70 a day. The material was yellow clay dug with 
mattocks and shovels. 

Cost o£ Trenching, Hilburn, N. Y.— Mr. W. C. Foster 
gives the following data on 17,000 ft. of trenching for water 
pipe at Hilburn, N. Y. The trench was 4 ft. deep, for 
4-in. to 8-in. pipe. The digging was hard, the banks being 
full of cobbles and frequently caved in. The streets were 
not paved. The cost of trenching and backfilling was 10.1 
cts. per lin. ft, wages being $1.35 for laborers and $3 for 
foremen. 

Cost of Trenching and Pipe Laying, Providence, 
R. I.— In Engineering News, June 28, 1890, Mr. E. B. Wes- 
ton, Engineer Water Department, Providence, R. I., gives 
very full records of pipe laying costs. The following ta- 
bles are given by him, and are based upon many miles of 
trench work: 

EASY DIGGING, SAND. 

Size of pipe, infl 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 

1. Trenching* 0422 .0518 .0611 .0707 .0798 .1445 .2088 

2. Laying 0129 .0162 .0191 .0219 .0249 .0870 .0497 

3. Foreman 0130 .0158 .0188 .0216 .0244 .0803 .0360 

4. T00I8, etc 0041 .0050 .0059 .0069 .0078 .0134 .0191 

6. Calking 0106 .0107 .0108 .0111 .0118 .0159 .0301 

6. Lead, 5 cts. lb 0224 .0320 .0431 .0558 .0683 .0950 .1203 

7. Teams 0070 .0090 .0115 .0136 .0160 .0203 .0216 

8. Carting 0078 .0149 .0208 .0276 .0346 .0518 .0746 

9. Total 1200 .1554 .1911 .2286 .2676 .4082 .6602 

MEDIUM DIGGING, GRAVEL, ETC. 

Slzeofplpe,ln. 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 

1. Trenching* .0597 .0697 .0790 .0883 .0974 1700 .2400 .3019 

2 Laying 0189 .0220 .0249 .0279 .0307 .0440 .0577 .0639 

8. Foreman.. .0180 .0208 .0284 .0265 .0294 .0350 .0373 .0396 

4. Tools, etc. . .0056 .0065 .0075 .0084 .0093 .0154 .0214 .0602 

5. Calking... .0106 .0107 .0108 .0111 .0118 .0159 .0301 .0757 

6. Lead. 5c. lb .0224 .0320 .0431 .0553 .0683 .0950 .1203 .1600 

7. Teams 0070 .0090 .0115 .0136 .0160 .0208 .0216 .0228 

8. Carting 0078 .0149 .0208 .0275 .0346 .0518 .0746 .1817 

9. Total 1500 .1854 .2210 .2586 .2975 .4474 .6030 .8630 

♦including backfilling, and in all cases the depth of the trench was such 
that the center ot the pipe was 4 ft. 8 ins. below ground surface. 



COST OF WATER-WORKS. 



397 



HARD DIGGINO, HARD OR MOIST CLAY. 

Size of pipe, ins 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 

1. Trenching* 0860 .0959 .1053 .1147 .1300 .2261 .3264 

2. Laying 0271 .0303 .0333 .0362 .0411 .0530 .0669 

3. Foreman 0260 .0286 .0314 .0343 .0372 .0428 .0452 

4. Tools, etc 0081 .0090 .0099 .0109 .0118 .0201 .0283 

5. Calking 0106 .0107 .0108 .0111 .0118 .0159 .0301 

6. Lead, 5 cts. lb 0224 .0320 .0431 .0553 .0683 .0950 ,1203 

7. Teams 0070 .0090 .0115 .0136 .0160 .0203 .0216 

8. Carting 0078 .0149 .0208 .0275 .0346 .0513 .0746 

9. Total 1950 .2304 .2661 .3036 .3508 .5250 .7134 

^Including backfilling, and In all cases the depth of the trench was such 
that the center of the pipe was 4 ft. 8 ins. below ground surface. 

Wages in all cases above were $1.50 a day for laborers 
trenching and laying, $3 a day for foreman, $2.25 for calk- 
ers, and $2.25 for teams which probably refers to team 
without driver. Carting was in all *cases $1 a ton. Allow- 
ance for tools, item 4, was made on a basis of 7.2% of items 
1 and 2. 

Tap and stop . , Lead service pipe per lln. ft. « 

Diam. Tap, stop, etc. Dlam. Weight Cost of pipe 

in including in in trenching 

ins. tapping. ins. lbs. laying, etc. 

% $6.00 ^ 3.00 $0.34 

K 6.23 % 4.00 .40 

^ 6.81 X 4.75 .45 

% ' 8.67 1 6.00 .52 

1 10.71 IK 9.00 .70 

1>^ 10.00 .76 

In the above, lead pipe was assumed at 6 cts. per lb.; 
labor of trenching and laying, 16 cts. per ft. 

Short lengths, 15 to 50 ft, of 6-in. pipe cost 34 cts. per 
ft. in easy digging to 45 cts. in hard digging for excavation, 
laying and backfiHing, wages being as above stated. 

The trench for a 24-in. pipe, 19,416 ft. long and 6.6 ft. 
deep cost 32 cts. per cu. yd. for excavation and backfill, 
with wages at $1.50 a day. 

A 48-in. main was laid for $1.65 per ft. including digging, 
laying, calking and backfilling. 

A 16-in. pipe, 374 ft. long passed under two railway 
tracks, and the cost of trenching, laying and backfilling was 
50 cts. per ft. 

An 8-in. pipe was laid across a bridge, and the cost of 
boxing, laying pipe, etc., was $1.32 per ft., while for a 12- 
in. pipe the cost was $1.50 per ft. 



m 



BANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



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COBT OF WATER-WOKK;^, 3&0 

Trenches were ordinarily 2 ft. wider than the pipe and 
5 ft. plus half the diameter of the pipe deep. Such 
trenches were dug, the pipe laid and backfilling made at 
the following rate per laborer engaged: 

6-in. pipe, easy earth 21.0 lln. ft. per day 

6-in. " medium earth..... 17.2 " " 

6-in. " hard earth 10.3 

8-in. " easy earth 19.3 *' •• 

12-in. ** medium earth 13.4 " ** 

20-in. " easy earth 9.0 " ** 

24-in. ** medium earth 4.4 " ** 

Earth excavation in trenches where digging is easy costs 
20 cts. per cu. yd.; rock excavation averages $2 per cu. yd. 
and runs as high as $3, wages being $1.50 a day for labor. 

Cost of Water Pipes Laid at Boston.— Mr. C. M. 

Saville gives the following data relative to 62 miles of 
pipe work done by contract for the City of Boston: The 
costs are averages of the actual costs under 21 contracts, 
from 1896 to 1903. As a general rule the pipes were laid 
with the axis of the pipe 5 'ft. below the surface. The pipes 
were usually placed in the trench by a hand operated der- 
rick spanning the trench. In practically all cases the 
streets were macadamized. Just how many feet of each 
kind of pipe were laid is not stated; ibut there were not 
less than the following amounts: 

12-in. pipe , 15,500 ft. 

16-in. pipe 44,600 ft. 

20-in. pipe 21,200 ft. 

24-in. pipe 19,600 ft. 

30-in. pipe 7,200 -ft. 

36-in. pipe 36,800 ft. 

48-in. pipe 97,900 ft. 

The first item in Table XVIII of $30 per ton for pipe was 
calculated by adding 12% to the actual cost of $26.80 per 
ton, this 12% being added to cover incidentals. These inci- 
dentals are as follows, by percentages: 

Per cent. 

Small pipes for blow-offs and connections 1% 

Special castings 4^^ 



400 BANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Valves 5 

'Miscellaneous materials 1 

Total percentage to be added to the cost per 
short ton of straight pipe 12 

The cost of teaming on 21 contracts previous to 1898 was 
26 cts. per to»n per mile, the average haul ^being 2.4 miles 
from the pipe yards; but, in order to !be liberal, 30 cts. 
per ton per mile for a 2i/^-mile haul is assumed as an aver- 
age; wages of two-horse team and driver being 45 cts. 
per hr. 

The lead is estimated at 5 cts. per lb., and as each joint 
requires about as many pounds of lead as 2 times the di- 
ameter of the pipe in inches, the cost of lead per foot of 

2 X diam. of pipe in ins. 

pipe is found by x $0.05. 

12 

The column headed "miscellaneous expenses" is based 
upon actual experience, and includes cost of tools, insur- 
ance of men, lumber, yarn, and incidental expenses. The 
tools depreciate about 50% on any contract. It was esti- 
mated that 4% of the cost of laying the pipe should be 
added to cover the cost of tools. The cost of accident in- 
surance was 3% of the pay roll. The contractOT's bond 
cost V2% of the bond. Incidental expenses were about 
1% of the pay roll. It was estimated that these three 
items amounted to 3.2% of the cost of laying the pipe. The 
cost of lumber, yarn, etc., averaged 2.S% of the cost of haul- 
ing and laying. Hence, the total cost of "miscellaneous 
expenses" was 4% + 3.2% + 2.8%, which is 10% of the cost 
of laying the pipe. The word "laying" is here used to in- 
clude the cost of hauling the pipe, the cost of lead, the cost 
of trenching and backfilling, and the cost of placing the 
pipe in the trench and calking it. 

The column headed "labor" includes the cost of trench- 
ing in earth (there was very little rock), and the cost of 
placing the pipe in the trench and calking it. Wages paid 
for labor were as follows: 



COST OF WATER-WORKS. 401 



Foreman $100.00 per month 

Sub-foreman 3.00 per day 

Calkers and yarners , 2.50 •• 

Laborers, 1st class 1.75 ** 

2d " 1.60 

Double team and driver 0.45 per hour 

Single " " 0.30 

A considerable amount of extra work was done by force 
account on 38 miles of the pipe lines, averaging 12 cts. 
per ft. of line^ due to obstructions encountered causing 
changes of location, etc. 

Cost of Water Pipe Laid at Alliance, O. — Mr. L. L. 

Tribus gives the following costs of work done in 1894, the 
material being loam and clay excavated to such a depth 
that 4 ft. of earth would be left on top of each class of 
pipe after backfilling: 

Size of pipe Inlns 4 6 8 10 12 

Wt. of pipe, lbs. per ft 19 30>^ 44 62 79 

Lbs. special per ft 0.4 0.76 1.1 1.55 1.9 

Lbs. lead per ft 0.4 0.66 1.0 1.25 1.5 

Lbs. yarn per ft 0.02 0.025 0.05 0.08 0.1 

Total length in ft 2,890 9,760 1,860 3,320 2,930 

COST PER LIN. FT. LAID. 

Size of pipe, ins 4 6 8 10 12 

Pipe $0.2360 $0.3780 $0.5350 $0.7470 $0.9400 

Specials and valves 0120 .0189 .0268 .0374 .0470 

Hauling 0056 .0078 .0011 .0145 .0190 

Lead .0020 .0330 .0500 .0630 .0750 

Yarn 0014 .0018 .0035 .0056 .0070 

Trenching 1240 .1210 .1287 .1480 .1902 

Pipe laying 0370 .0346 .0313 .0542 .0463 

Total $0.4360 $0.5951 $0.7764 $1.0697 $1.3245 

This work was done by laborers and men employed by 
the water company and does not include cost of super- 
intendence. The 4-ft. cover over the pipe was in some 
cases exceeded. The digging was comparatively easy with 
little ground water to bother. Mr. Tribus informs me that 
the wages paid were: Laborers, $1.25; pipe handlers, 
$1.50; and calkers, $2.25, per 10-hour day. 

Cost of "Water Pipe Laid at Porterville, Cal.— Mr. 
P. E. Harroun gives the following data on laying 4, 6, 8 
and 10-in. water pipe and making service connections, at 
Porterville, Cal., in 1904. The work was done hy company 
labor, and the workmen were very inefficient. All trenches 



402 MANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

were 1% ft. wide and 3% ft. deep in a heavy adobe (clay), 
except for short stretches in sand as hereafter noted. The 
streets were not paved, but covered with 4 ins. of hard 
rolled clay and gravel which required a 4-horse plow to 
break through. In backfilling, a '*go devil" was used to 
throw the material into the trench wherever practicable, 
and water from street hydrants was used to consolidate 
the backfill. 

Cost of 4-in. water pipe line (2,846 ft. long, of which 900 
ft. were in sand) : 

Per ft. 

Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0,070 

Two horses trenching, at 15 cts. per hr 0.001 

Labor digging bell-holes, at 20 cts. per hr 0.015 

Labor laying pipe, at 20 cts. per hr 0.010 

Yarners, at 22i^ cts. per hr 0.005 

Labor pouring lead, at 20 cts per hr 0.004 

Calkers, at 25 cts. per hr 0.008 

Labor backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.011 

Two horses backfilling, at 15 cts. per hr 0.004 

Distribution of materials, at 60 cts. per ton 0.005 

Miscellaneous labor 0.004 

Foreman, at 40 cts. per hr 0.017 

Time keeper 0.002 

Total cost of laying per ft $0,156 

The cost of materials for this 4-in. pipe line was as fol- 
lows: ^ ^^ 

Per ft. 

Pipe (2,820 ft., 30 short tons), at $44.40 $0,461 

Specials (4,462 lbs.), at 3^/4 cts 0.051 

Valves (9), at $9.40 0.030 

Hydrants (5), at $28.60 0.050 

Lead (2,010 lbs.), at 5.3 cts 0.038 

Yarn (105 lbs.), at 5.4 cts 0.002 

Tools 0.015 

Miscellaneous 0.006 

Total materials per ft $0,653 



COST OF WATER-WORKS, 403 

Cost of 6-in. water pipe line (838 ft. long, of which 300 ft. 

were in sand) : 

Per ft. 

Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0,075 

Two horses trenching, at 15 cts. per hr 0.001 

Labor digging bell-holes, at 20 cts. per hr 0.017 

Labor laying pipe, at 20 cts. per hr 0.013 

Yarners, at 22i^ cts. per hr 0.005 

LalDor pouring, at 20 cts, per hr 0.007 

Calkers, at 25 cts. per hr 0.010 

Labor backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.012 

Two horses backfilling, at 15 cts. per hr 0.004 

Miscellaneous 0.005 

Distribution of materials, at 60 cts. ton 0.012 

Foreman, at 40 cts. per hr 0.018 

Time keeper 0.002 

Total cost of laying per ft $0,181 

The eost of materials for this 6-in. pipe line was as fol- 
lows : 

Per ft. 

Pipe (816 ft., 13.12 tons), at $43.40 per ton $0,679 

Specials (1,420 lbs.), at 3^^ cts 0.055 

Valves (10), at $15.65 0.187 

Hydrants (9), at $29.85 0.320 

Lead (804 lbs.), at 5.3 cts 0.052 

Yarn (42 lbs.), at 5.4 cts 0.003 

Tools 0.016 

General 0.010 

Total materials per ft $1,322 

Cost of 8-in. water pipe line (2,558 ft. long, of which 800 ft. 

were in sand) : 

Per ft. 

Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0,071 

Labor digging bell-holes, at 20 cts. per hr 0.016 

Labor laying pipe, at 20 cts. per hr 0.016 

Yarners, at 22% cts. per hr. . . . < 0.006 

Labor pouring, at 20 cts. per hr 0.006 



404 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Per ft. 

Calkers, at 25 cts. per hr , 0.013 

Labor backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.012 

Two horses backfilling, at 15 cts. per hr 0.004 

Miscellaneous 0.004 

Distributing materials, at 60 cts. per hr 0.016 

Foreman, at 40 cts. per hr 0.017 

Time keeper 0.002 

Total cost of laying per ft $0,183 

The cost of materials for this 8-in. pipe line was as fol- 
lows : 

Per ft. 

Pipe (2,512 ft, 57.61 tons), at $43.40 $0,978 

Specials (4,056 lbs.), at 3i/4 cts 0.052 

Valves (5), at $24 0.047 

Lead (3,618 lbs.), at 5.3 cts 0.076 

Yarn (189 lbs.), at 5.4 cts 0.004 

Tools 0.015 

Miscellaneous 0.009 

Total materials per ft $L181 

Cost of 10-in water pipe line (124 ft. of pipe, 14 ft. of 

specials; total, 138 ft): _ 

Per ft. 

Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0,174 

Labor digging bell-holes, at 20 cts. per hr 0.015 

Labor laying pipe, at 20 cts. per hr 0.022 

Labor yarning, at 20 cts. per hr 0.002 

Labor pouring, at 20 cts. per hr 0.002 

Labor calking, at 20 cts. per hr 0.015 

Labor backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.060 

Labor miscellaneous, at 20 cts. per hr 0.015 

Distribution of materials, at 60 cts. ton 0.020 

Foreman, at 40 cts. per hr 0.016 

Time keeper 0.002 

Total labor per ft $0,343 



C08T OF WATER-WORKS. 405 

The cost of materials for this 10-in. pipe line was as fol- 

^^^^^ Per ft. 

Pipe (124 ft., 3.75 tons) , at $43.40 $1,179 

Specials (603 lbs.), at 3% cts 0.178 

Valves (1), at $34.60 0.251 

Lead (268 lbs.), a,t 5.3 cts 0.105 

Yarn (14 lbs.), at 5.4 cts 0.005 

Tools 0.015 

Miscellaneous 0.009 

Total materials per ft $1,742 

Cost of 78 service connections (%-in. screw pipe): 

Each. 

Labor trenching, at 20 cts. per hr $0,613 

Tapping and making, at 40 cts. per hr 1.003 

Tapping and helper, at 20 cts. per hr 0.289 

Backfilling, at 20 cts. per hr 0.206 

Total labor per connection $2,111 

The cost of materials for each service connection was as 

^o^^^ws- Each. 

Goosenecks and cocks $2.48 

Fittings 0.40 

Tools ($68) 0.88 

Tapping machine ($81) 1.03 

Total materials and tools per connection. . $4.79 

It will be noted that the full cost of the tools and tap- 
ping machine is charged to these 78 connections, making 
the cost of each unusually high. 

Assuming, as above stated, that the trenches averaged 
IVz ft. wide and 3% ft. deep, the cost per cubic yard of 

trench work was as follows: 

Cents. 

•Digging trench 38 

Digging bell-holes 8^/^ 

Backfilling 8^^ 

Total per cu. yd 55 



406 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



An Unusually Expensive Piece of Work.— "G. S. W. 

'88" in The Technic of 1896, gives the following, the ma- 
terial in all cases being clay: Wages of laborers 15 cts., 
pipe handlers 16 to 17l^ cts., foreman 20 cts. per hour; 
depth of trench, 4 to 5^^ ft: 



Example A 

Size of pipe, ins 24 

Lengtli of pipe, ft 2,550 

Excavation, cu. yds 2,710 

Surplus earth,* cu. yds 1,300 

Cost of excavation per foot 90.2725 



pipe laying, per ft. 

bell holes, per ft 

backfilling, per ft 

ramming, per ft 

tile, hose work, per ft., 
load'g excess earth, ft. 
cart'g excess earth, ft. . 



.2480 
.1500 
.1790 
.79271 



.0895 
.0636 



24 

2,200§ 

1,963 

862 

$0,333 

.182 

.128 

.191 

.107$ 

.074 

.046 

.065 



12-16 
6,241 
3,441 
1,033 
$0.2061 
.2089 
.0954 
.1228 
.2896t 



10 
8,969 
4,508 



.03.58 
.0635 



$0.2416 
.0939 
.0098 
.1360 
.1322t 
.0200 
.0025 
.0046 



Totallabor cost per ft $1.7953 $1.1161: $1.031811 $0.6433 



Cost of excavation, cu. yd 

'* backfilling, cu. yd 

*' ramming, cu. yd 

•* tile, hose work, cu. yd 

Swelling of material on loosening. . 



0.2562 0.373 .3736 
0.1684 0.216 .2226 
0.7461t 0.12111 .5434t 

0.084 

44^ 30.to44K%* 20^ 



.4807 
.2706 
.8618t 



* This surplus earth was hauled away In wagons, after filling the 
trenches and leaving a 4-in crown to provide for settlement. 

§ 1,400 feet of this trench was backfilled without ramming, using 
water Instead ; ramming, however, was much more effective in compact- 
ing the clay. 

t Kammed dry in 4-in layers. 

t Eammedwet; the portion that was rammed dry cost $1.40 p«r ff 
total. 

II This total doei not check with the items, so there must be an error 
somewhere. 



With labor at $1.25 for 8 hours and material clay as 
before, streets paved with wood. "G. S. W." also gives the 
following: 

Example E F G H 

Size of pipe in Ins , 12 12 10 8 

Depth of trench, ft 5 5 5 5 

Length of trench, ft 1,048 2.475 2,592 2,049 

Cost of excavation, per ft $0,186 $0,134 $0.1920 $0.1442 

" pipe laying, per ft , 257 .162 .1218 .0678 

•• backfilling, per ft 450 .390 .3949 .3632 

" hauling surplus, per ft 014 .011 .0101 .0194 

Totallabor cost per ft $0,907 $0,697 $0.7188 $0.5746 



COST OF WATER-WORKS. 407 

The two most striking features in the foregoing data 
are (1) the enormous swelling of the clay upon loosen- 
ing and casting it out of the trenches, and (2) the extra- 
ordinary high cost of ramming the clay in backfilling. It 
is difficult to explain either of these items except upon the 
assumption that the loosened clay dried out when exposed 
to the sun and air, forming hard rock-like clods which no 
amount of ramming seems to have consodidated effectual- 
ly. Adding water as in Example B seems to have had no 
very good effect in consolidating the backfill, although it 
was less expensive than ramming. But it is a well-known 
fact that water makes dry clay swell, and it does not cause 
layers of hard lumpy clay to settle in a trench except as a 
result of weeks of slow seepage of rains. 

It will be noted that all this work was extraordinarily 
expensive. Even the pipe laying cost double the usual 
amount. We may infer that this work was not done by con- 
tract but by day labor for a municipality or a compainy, 
and that the foreman did not secure **a day's work" from 
the men — ^which is so often the case in municipal day-labor 
work. 

Cost of a 6-in. Pipe Line in Ohio.^Mr. E. H. Gowan 
has given me the following data: A 6-in. pipe line, 1% 
miles long, was laid in an Ohio city by contract, the cost 
per foot of pipe line to the contractor being as follows: 

Per ft. 
33.74 lbs. of 6-in. pipe, at $24 per short ton...... $0,405 

0.67 lb. of specials, at 2% cts. per lb 0.018 

Hydrant connections, 4-ln 0.008 

Hydrants, $26 each 0.066 

Gates ($12.60 each) and gate boxes ($3.09 each) . . 0.054 

0.74 lb. lead, 4i^ cts. per lb 0.033 

0.07 lb. jute packing, 3% cts. per lb 0.003 

Labor, 18% to 26 cts. per ft, averaging 0.211 

Teaming, 49^2 cts. per short ton 0.009 

Miscellaneous items 0.008 

Total $0,815 



408 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The working force was as follows: 

1 foreman, at $2.50 per lO-hr. day. 

2 sub-foremen, at $2.00. 

9 men in pipe gang (including 2 calkers), at $1.75. 
32 laborers digging trench, at $1.50. 
12 laborers backfilling, at $1.50. 

1 waterboy, at $1.00. 

At times the backfilling gang was engaged in trench 
digging. Trenches were 5 ft. 2 ins. deep. The digging 
ranged from the easiest spading to the hardest picking, the 
average being "average earth." Could the contractor have 
been present all the time, the cost might have been less. 
The backfilling was done by hand, and it was not rammed, 
but the trench was fiushed with water. No material was 
hauled away. The work was done in August and Septem- 
ber, 1903, and there was very little rain. It was not nec- 
essary to brace the trench except at a few spots. 

Cost of Water Pipe Laid in a Southern City, — ^In Engi- 
neering News, March 30, 1893, Mr. C, D. Biarstow gives very 
complete tables of cost of shallow trenching and pipe lay- 
ing in a southern city, where negro laborers were used. 
From the data given by him I have compiled the following 
tables of cost: 

For the most part the trenches were IF ins. wide at bot- 
tom and 20 ins. at top, and 3 ft. deep. Some trenching was 
done using a team on a drag scraper, 20 ins. wide; then 
the trench was made 3 ft. wide at top. Using teams was 
more economical, as may be seen by comparing C with D in 
the foregoing table. After a rain, however, the scrapers 
could not ibe used to advantage. In using a plow for loosen- 
ing the earth, several feet of chain are fastened to the end 
of the plow beam, and one or more men ride the beam; in 
this way plowing may be done in a trench 4 ft. deep, one 
horse walking on one side and one on the other side of 
the trench. A blacksmith was kept busy sharpening about 
60 picks a day. There was a night watchman. The pipe 
was distributed by contract at 34 cts. per toa. 



COST OF WATER'W0RK8. 409 



TABLE OF COST OF TRENCHING AND PIPELAYING IN THE SOUTH, 

Wages per lO-hr. day for negro laborers, $1.25 ; for calkers, $1.75 ; for 
white foremen, $3.00; for team», $3.25 ; for horse ridden by boy, $1.50. 

Job ABC D E F 

Plpe,in8 101 6 8 10 88 

Length, ft 11,000 6,000 6,215 11.352 2,636 21,856 

Width trench, ft 2 

Depth trench, ft 3.5 3 8 S3 8 

Material 2 4 9 

No. laborers digging 33 30 40 81 45 46 

No. teams plowing S}4 5 2}i 

Team time, cts. per ft - 0.80 0.62 0.60 

Labor, digging, cts. ft.... 6.66 2.74 5.19 2.68 2.12 4.00 
Foreman, digging, cts., ft. 0.50 0.23 0.31 0.21 0.12 0.20 

Labor, pipe laying, cts. ft. 2.04 0.68 0.77 0.94 1.12 

Foreman, pipe lay 'gets, ft 0.39 0.17 0.21 0.18 0.24 

Bell hole digging, cts., ft. 2.70 0.77 0.98 0.93 1.16 

Bell hole digging, fore- 
man, cts. per ft 0.27 0.16 0.21 0.18 0.18 

Calking, cts., per ft 1.30 0.51 0.64 0.63 0.75 

Backfill and tamp : 

Labor, cts.: per ft 4.323 1.005 i.oie 2.09 1.427 0.959 

Foreman, cts., per ft... 0.36 0.22 0.22 0.82 0.18 0.18 

Team,* cts. per ft 0.36 0.41 

Horse rid'n by boy, cts.ft 0.07 0.09 

Total cost, cts. per ft 18.54 4.19 9.46 8.91 7.41 0.79 



♦Backfill with drag scraper. 

iTrenching in an old street, 1,200 ft. in very muddy ground. Two rainj 
spells in 18 days of work. Then 10-in. pipe was laid for 3,440 ft. ; then 4,038 
ft. of 12-in. pipe were laid for IX cts. per ft. less than it cost for the 10-in. 
pipe. ; then 3,270 ft. of 8-in. pipe were laid tor 2)i cts. per ft. less than it 
cost for the 10-in. 

^Cemented clay and gravel requiring hard picking. Frequent rains. 

3The backfilling and tamping were done most thoroughly, a stretch of 
2,550 ft. requiring 3 days for 30 men. 

4Sand and loam, bottom land, very easy digging. 

5 Very easy shoveling and no tamping; 11 men 7 days backfilled 9,620 
£t. of trench. 

6Dragscrapers used to backfill; boy riding horses to tamp, gang 22 men, 
3 teams.. 1 boy and horse, 2 days on 5,447 ft. 

7Back filled 1,670 ft. in one day by 19 men, using 1 boy and horse on 
tumping. 

sHalf the pipe was S-ln. at cost here given, half was 6-in. costing >i-ct. 
less per ft. for laying. 

QOround wet and often muddy. Backfilling 11,433 ft. done by 12 men 
and 2 teams on scrapers In 7 days ; no tamping. 

The lead and yarn consumed per ft. of pipe (length 12 
ft.) was: 

1.3 lbs. of lead and .04 lb. of hemp for 12-in. pipe. 

.96 lb. of lead and .04 lb. of hemp for 10-in. pipe. 

.95 lb. of lead and .03 lb. of hemp for 8-in. pipe. 

•66 lb. of lead and .02 lb. of hemp for 6-in. pipe. 

Some 6,000 ft. of 2-in. wrought-iron service pipe was 
laid in trenches 2 ft. deep, at a cost of 1.9 cts. for trenching, 



410 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

0.24 ct. for laying pipe, and 0.71 ct. for backfilling— tliere 

was no tamping done. 

For a distance of 373 ft. a trench 2 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep 

passed through a street paved with hrick laid on IV2 ins. 

of concrete. The hrlck was removed for a width of 3 ft. 

and the cost was as follows: 

Men, Cts. per 
days lin. ft. 

Removing brick and concrete | Laborers 7.0 2.61 

Excavating trench JEaboTers IS.'o 6.30 

Backfilling and tamping wen {Laborers 10.6 4.09 

Labor relaying concrete 7.8 2.61 

** '* bricks 4.5) 

Professional brick pavers 4.0 [ 4.59 

" " helpers 2.0) 

Hauling away 23 loads surplus earth 1.23 

15 cu. yds. sand cushion 4.02 

1,700 new bricks 6.92 

18>^ bbls. cement to relay concrete 6.20 

Total 38.58 

Cost of Taking Up an Old Pipe Line.— Mr. Ei. E. 
Pitzpatrick furnishes the following data relative to taking 
up more than 3 miles of pipe line at Greenburg, Kansas. 
There were 10,200 ft. of 4-in. pipe; 4,310 ft. of 6-in.; 2,050 
ft. of 8-in., and 890 ft. of 10-in. After digging the trenches, 
the 8-in. and 10-in. pipes were raised a little, and fires 
built under the Joints until the pipe expanded; then 
the pipes were unjointed by working them up and down 
with a three-leg derrick. The 4-in. and 6-in. pipes were 
raised bodily in long sections onto the bank, heated a little, 
and unjointed by means of jack-screws and clamps. The 
time required to do all the trenching, backfilling and un- 
jolnting, was equivalent to the work of 1 man for 425 days; 
and, assuming wages at $1.50 a day, the cost was only 3% 
cts. per foot of pipe. 

Cost of Subaqueous Pipe Laying. — A line of 12-in. 
waiter pipe was laid in a trench dredged across a river 
500 ft. wide, as follows: The water in the river averaged 
4 ft. deep and the trench was dug 6 ft. deep, making a 
depth of 10 ft. from water surface to bottom of the trench. 
The small home-made dredge, described in- my book on 



COST OF WATER-WORKS, 411 

Earthwork, was used for the dredging. To lower the pipe 
into the trench A-frame bents were built of 4 x 6-in. timber, 
the legs of the bents straddling the trench, and each pipe 
was supported by an iron rod passing through a hole bored 
in the horizontal member of the A-frame. These rods were 
about 12 ft. long, %-in. diameter, and threaded their full 
length. Each rod was provided with a hook at its lower 
end to hook into an iron ring around the pipe. The pipe 
was ordinary cast iron pipe, and was leaded and calked 
while suspended from the A-frames. Then it was the 
intention to lower the 500 ft. of pipe all at one time by 
putting a man with a momkey-wrench at each rod, to give 
the nut on the rod a turn at a given signal from a whistle. 
There were 43 bents, 12 ft. apart, and it was decided that 
a force of 10 men could lower the pipe satisfactorily by 
giving a few turns of the nuts on 10 rods, then moving to 
the next 10 rods, and so on. Through carelessness or mis- 
chief, sonre of the men gave more turns to the nuts than 
the signals called for. This threw the weight of several 
pipes upon two or more rods, and broke one of them at 
the hook, which was the weak spot. Immediately all the 
other rods teoke in rapid succession, dropping the pipe 
line into the river. The pipe settled to the bottom without 
breaking in two anywhere, and only one Joint showed any 
leakage of air when I inspected the line immediately after 
the accident. This joint was calked by a man who dived 
down repeatedly, and struck a few blows each time he was 
down. However, a diver was sent for to examine every 
joint, and his inspection showed the pipe line to be intact 
from end to end. The cost of building the A-frames, 
placing and calking the pipe line was as follows: 

10 men, 3 days, at $1.75 $52.50 

1 foreman, 3 days, at $3.00 9.00 

10 men, 1 day at work lowering pipe, at $1.75. . . . 17.50 
1 foreman, 1 day at work lowering pipe, at $3.00 3.00 

1 diver, 1 day inspecting line 25.00 

Traveling expenses of diver 15.00 

Total for 516 ft. of pipe $122.00 



412 haxdbook of co^t data. 

The above does not include the cost of the iron rods, 
nor the timber used in the bents, nor the building of a 
small raft from which to erect the A-frame bents. 

From this experience I believe it would be safe to dis- 
pense with the threaded iron rods for lowering such a line 
of pipe. The pipe could be held just above the water sur- 
face by small manila ropes, until calked. Then upon cut- 
ting one or two of the ropes, the rest would break and 
allow the pipe to settle into the water. As the pipe line 
is quite bouyant, when filled with air, it settles down gent- 
ly upon the bottom of the trench. In case a break should 
occur in the line, threaded rods could be made, and the 
pipe raised and repairs made at but slightly greater expense 
than would have been incurred had rods been used in the 
first place. When pipe is lowered as above described, one 
flexible pipe joint is usually provided at each end -of the 
pipe line. 

Cost of Laying Pipe Across the Susquehanna. — ^Mr. 

James P. Herdic gives the following data relating to laying 
10-in. cast iroin pipe across the Susquehanna River, at 
Montoursville, Pa., a distance of 600 ft., average depth of 
water being 13 ft. A %-in. manila rope was first stretched 
across the river, to act as a ferry line for the scows. The 
scows were loaded with pipe. The crew of 8 men and 
foreman were engaged 1 day in this preliminary work, and 
then laid the 600 ft. of pipe line in the next 2% days. One 
ball and socket joint was used to every six ordinary joints. 
The pipe line was lowered between the two scows, by means 
of chain pulleys suspended from a heavy sawhorse that 
spanned the gap between the two boats. The pipe was laid 
in a gentle curve, bowed up stream, so as to form an arch 
to resist the stronger eurrents. This is certainly an ex- 
cellent record for economic work. 

On another place in the Susquehanna River, where the 
current was so swift that it would swamp a scow if held 
sidewise in the current by a cable, as above described, the 
following method was used: A scow was held in the cur- 
rent with its nose up stream, but at an angle with the cur- 
rent; ropes from bow and stern to the nearest shore serv- 



COST OF WAT.ER-WORKB. 413 

ing to hold it. In this way the current kept the ropes 
taut, and the scow remained steady while the lead joints 
were poured. The pipe line lay across the middle of the 
scow, which was moved out from under each joint as fast 
as made. Six common joints to each ball and socket joint 
were used. 

Cost of Laying a 6-in. Pipe Under Water. — Ahout 
5,100 ft. of 6-in. pipe were laid from the New Jersey shore 
to Ellis Island under 10 to 17 ft. of water. A trench was 
dug 5 ft. deep hy 10 ft. wide in the mud, using a dam-shell 
bucket. Heavy pipe, weighing 800 lbs. per length, pro- 
vided with Ward flexible joints, was used. Two scows, 
each 26 x 80 ft., were fastened together, 6 ft. apart, and 
provided with two skids of 10 x 10-in. timbers 55 ft long, 
leading down between the scows to the bottom of the 
trench. The skids could be lowered in rough weather. 
Two lengths of pipe were placed at one time on the skids, 
a derrick being used for the purpose, and then the scows 
were warped ahead 24 ft. The whole work occupied just 
a month, using a force of 10 laborers, 2 calkers and 1 diver 
to calk any leaks, etc. The best day's work was 516 ft. 
The line was tested under 80 lbs. pressure, and leaked only 
5 cu. ft. in %-hr. 

Cost of Laying Pipe Across tke "Willamette River, — 

In Etog. Record, Sept. 19 and 26, 1897, the laying of 32-in. 
pipe across the Willamette River, Oregon, is described. 
Two scows and an inclined cradle were used. The gang 
was 16 men and 1 diver, and they laid 80 ft. of pipe per day 
in a trench 23 ft. below the water surface. 

Cost of a Wood-Pipe Line. — ^Mr. James D. Schuyler, 
in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 31 (1894), describes and illus- 
trates very fully the building of a wooden pipe line for 
Denver, Col. The pipe was 30 ins. diameter, made of 
staves of Texas pine l^i-in. thick, with i^-in. round iron 
bands. A pipe laying gang coinsisted of 8 to 16 men ac- 
cording to the number of bands per unit of length, half 
the gang being employed in back cinching. On a 34-in. 
pipe a gang placed 700 to 1,000 bands per day, laying from 
150 to 300 lim ft. of pipe. On a 44-in. pipe the rate was 



414 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

500 bands per day. The cost of erection was from 5 cts. 
per band on a 30-in. pipe to 10 cts. per band on a 48-in. 
pipe. The cost of 16.4 miles of 30-in. pipe was $1.36 per 
ft, distributed as follows: 

1,869 M Texas pine, at $27.50 $51,399 

271,900 steel bands (y2-in.) and shoes 54,300 

Erection of pipe, 5.1 cts per band, by contract.. 13,866 

$119,565 

In addition the trenching and backfilling cost 48 cts. 
per ft., which was unusually expensive. 

■Cost of a 64-HP. Gasoline Pumping Plant and 
Pumping;. — Mr. P. E. Harroun gives the following on the 
cost of a gasoline pumping plant ior the water-works of 
Porterville, Oal., having a population of 2,000: 
Two gasoline engines: 

Two gasoline engines, each 32 HP $2,860 

Hauling and placing on foundations 90 

Two belt tighteners 76 

Framing and placing same 22 

Fittings, foundation bolts, tubes, etc 48 

Labor, lining up, adjusting, etc., 30 cts. per hr 38 

Belting 141 

iMiscellaneous 11 

Cost of two engines in place $3,286 

Two pumps: 

Two 9 X 12-in. single acting triplex pumps $2,816 

Hauling and placing on foundations 170 

Foundation bolts, tubes and setting same 42 

Special castings 372 

Pipe, flanges and bolts 248 

Valves 160 

Fittings, gaskets, miscellaneous and blacksmithing 134 

Labor connecting up 100 

Ejector, pipe fittings and connecting up 38 

Cost of two pumps $4,080 



COST OF WAfER'WORKS. 415 

Tliis makes the combined cost of engines and pumps, ex- 
clusive of concrete foundations, $7,366. 

The cost of pumping with this plant into a stand-pipe 
was as follows, in the month of May, 1904: 

1,700 gals, crude Coalinga oil, at 4 cts $68.00 

22 gals, engine oil, at 50 cts 11.00 

5 gals, engine gasoline, at 30 cts 1.50 

25 gals, pump oil, at 50 cts 12.50 

8 lbs. pump gear compounds, at 25 cts 2.00 

20 lbs. waste, at 10 cts 2.00 

^ time of superintendent 50.00 

Full time of assistant superintendent 65.00 

Total per month .$212.00 

During this month the pumps raised 12,678,000 gals, a 
height of 164 ft.; the pumps actually pumped 458 hrs. 
This makes the cost a trifle more than 0.1 cts. per million 
gallons raised 1 ft. high. There were 1,200 consumers who 
used 340 gals, per capita. The crude oil weighs 7% lbs. 
per gal., and develops 19,600 B. T. U. per gal. The T>est 
performance of the plant, extending over several days, has 
been 1.43 pints of crude oil per horse-power hour. The 
combined efficiency of the pump and belting was 70%, so 
that 1 pint of crude oil developed about 1 B. HP. per hr. 
Half of the superintendent's time is charged to the plant 
and half to the office expense of the water-works system. 

Cost of a Pump-^Pit. — ^Mr. P. B. Harroun gives the 'fol- 
lowing data on excavating a circular pump-pit 26 ft. deep 
and 22 ft. in diameter. The work was done in Porterville, 
Cal., in 1904, by company labor which was not efficient, 
and was high priced. In sinking the pit, the upper 8 ft. 
were river silt, then came 5 ft. of coarse gravel carrying 
a large volume of water, and the remaining 13 ft. were 
in clay. The clay was very hard to pick, and contained 
many seams carrying water. The sides of the pit were 
covered with spouting streams and the bottom of the pit 
was a series of small geysers. O'n account of the slough- 
ing of the sides, it was necessary to timber the pit from 



416 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

top to bottom. The timbering consisted of 4 x 12-in. 
rangers or wales, and braces, sheeted with 2-in. plank 
driven vertically, as in sewer work. The earth was loaded 
with shovels into dump boxes, holding %-cu. yd. each, and 
raised with a derrick, the hoisting poweT being a pair of 
mules. One box was loaded while the other was being 
dumped into a wagon. The following costs do not include 
the hauling away in wagons or the cost of pumping the 
pit: 

Per cu. yd. 

Laborers, at 20 cts. per hr $0.58 

Team of mules, at 20 cts. per hr 0.06 

Foreman of laborers (130 hrs.), at 30 cts. per hr.. . 0.08 

Tools and blacksmithing 0.14 

Lumber (7i/4 M, at $22) ^ 0.36 

Miscellaneous material 0.04 

Carpenter (160 hrs.), at 35 cts 0.11 

Carpenter's helper (154 hrs.), at 20 ets 0.07 

Foreman of timbering (130 hrs.), at 30 cts 0.08 

Total per cu. yd., for 454 cu. yds $1.52 

It will be noted that the carpenter work, including help- 
er, cost $11.50 per M of timber. There were 10 laborers, 
1 team of mules, and 1 foreman, at work about 13 days 
(10-hr.), doing the excavating. 

A circular reservoir 4 ft. deep and 52 ft. in diameter was 
excavated in stiff adobe (clay), and a^bout 300 cu. yds. were 
loaded with pick and shovel into wagons and hauled away. 
The cost of this pick and shovel work alone was 59 cts. 
per cu. yd., wages being 20 cts. per hour. 



SECTION VIII. 

COST OP SEWERS, VITRIFIED CONDUITS AND TIDE 

DRAINS. 

General Considerations.— Trenches for sewers are usu- 
ally much deeper than trenches for water pipes, because 
it is generally considered desirable to have a sewer deep 
enough to drain cellars and basements. In cities a com- 
mon depth is 8 to 11 ft. If the depth is more than about 
6 ft., even in narrow trench work, men will be required on 
the surface to shovel the earth back from the edge of the 
trench after it has been cast up. In such cases always cast 
the earth onto plank, for reasons given in Sectioin 2 on 
Earthwork. When the depth much exceeds 8 ft, it is 
advisable to cast the earth out of the trench in stages, 
using platforms about 6 ft. apart — ^or less if the earth is 
sloppy. Bear in mind that where the trench is a wide 
one, there is much handling of the earth after it reaches 
the surface, both in stacking it up in piles and in moving 
it back into the trench C 'backfilling") after the sewer 
has been laid. In large sewer construction there is more 
excavation than backfill, and the excess must be loaded 
and carted away. Each case must be estimated separately, 
which can be done with the data given in Section 2 on 
Earthwork, and with the data in this section and in the 
previous section on Water-works. 

Deep trenching is beset with so many difficulties, such 
as the handling of unexpected bodies of water, the cav- 
ing of banks even when well sheeted, and the like, that 
liberal estimates of cost should always be made. Then 
$7 to $10 a day should ordinarily be added for rental of 
a trench machine, for even where owned by the contractor 
a liberal allowance must be made for wear and tear and 



418 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

interest, since so much of the time the machine is ordi- 
narily idle. The cost of the sheeting plank must be added, 
also that of pumping. In many localities glacial boulders 
are likely to be encountered, greatly delaying work and 
adding to the cost. 

Accidents to men are frequent — so much so in some soils 
that accident insurance companies absolutely refuse to 
insure a sewer contractor's men. Accident insurance is 
seldom less than 1% of the pay roll, even on safe work, 
and on sewer work it often runs up to several per cent. 

Cost of Excavating With. Trencli Macliiiies« — A 

trench machine, as the term is here used, does not mean 
an earth digger, but an earth conveyor. The Carson trench 
machine is a good example of the type. It consists essen- 
tially of -a single rail track on which a trolley travels, 
being hauled back and forth by the cables of a hoisting 
engine. The trolley carries the bucket into which the 
earth or rock has been loaded by hand. The single rail 
track is supported at intervals by a light trestle made of 
bents that are A-shaped. 

The legs of the A-bents are provided with wheels at 
the bottom riding on a track straddling the trench, and 
the whole trestle can be moved forward in 5 to 10 mins., 
from time to time, as the work advances, without taking 
the trestle apart, unless a curve has to be rounded. These 
A-bents are of 6 x 8-in. spruce, 20 ft. high and have a 
spread of 18 ft. at the bottom. The trestle is 288 ft. long, 
and buckets of 1 cu. yd., each are handled. The crew and 
the cost of operation are the same as for a cableway. 

Mr. A. W. Byrne states that in completing one 4,000-ft. 
eection of the Metropolitan sewer system, at Boston, he 
used the following force: 

1 engineman $3.00 

1 lockman 2.00 

1 dumper 1.50 

8 shovelers, at $1.75 14.00 

2 bracers, at $2.50 5.00 

2 tenders, at $2.00 4.00 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 419 

4 plank drivers, at $2.00 $8.00 

2 men cutting down planks, at $2.00 4.00 

8 men pulling planks, etc., at $1.75 14.00 

Total $55.50 

This force working in a trench 9 ft. wide x 20 to 30 ft. 
deep averaged 64 lin. ft. a week in ''boiling sand," the 
pressure of which would break 6 x 8-in. stringers 2^ ft. 
apart, and 192 ft. a week in gravel and coarse sand, which 
is equivalent to 70 to 110 cu. yds. a day in the running sand, 
and 200 cu. yds. in good ground, or at a cost ranging from 
80 to 25 cts. cu. yd. A steam pump running at a cost of 
$10 a day was also required, and about %-ton of coal was 
used by the trench machine. The work mentioned was 
done after the trench machine was set up, and the gang 
well organized. Another contractor states that it took 
him two days to dismantle a machine, move it 1,000 ft. and 
set up again. 

The Adams trench machine consists of a series of 
wrought-iron, n -shaped bents, the lower feet of the n 
being provided with wheels running on rails laid each 
side of the trench. These O bents carried two rails, on 
each side, beneath the top of the bent, and a car ran along 
these rails; this car is pulled back and forth by cables 
from a hoisting engine at one end of the trench; and the 
same engine raises buckets up to the car where they are 
gripped. Working in sand at Peoria, 111., the following 
was the cost in a trench 13 ft. wide x 45 ft. deep: 

Per day. 

18 men loading buckets, at $1.50 $27.00 

1 man operating bucket car 2.00 

1 foreman 3.00 

1 engineman 2.50 

1 waterboy 50 

Coal, oil, etc 1.00 

Total per day $36.00 

This force excavated 284 buckets of 11-9 cu. yds. each. 



420 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

or 316 cu. yds., daily at a cost of 11.4 cts. per cu. yd., as the 
average of 1 month. 

The same gang operating in a trench, 12 ft. wide x 33 ft. 
deep, averaged 288 buckets a day, at a cost of 12.5 cts. per 
cu. yd. Most of the excavated material was dumped di- 
rectly from the buckets as backfill into the trench where 
the sewer was completed. 

A Moore Hoister and Conveyor, which differed only in 
having the bucket car travel on top of the bent, instead 
of below, required one more man handling the buckets, 
making the daily force account $38. In a trench 12 ft. wide 
X 35 ft. deep the Moore machine daily averaged 286 buckets 
of 1 cu. yd. each, at a cost of 13.3 cts. per cu. yd. 

These records for Adams and Moore machines show un- 
usually low costs. They should not be taken as averages, 
but rather as showing the very best that can be doiue 
under favorable conditions. Mr. A. D. Thompson is my 
authority for these cost records. The cost of sheeting these 
trenches is given on pages 435 and 436. 

Cost of DiiBcult Trench Excavation in Mass. — Mr. 

H. H. Carter gives the following account of work done by 
contract in Massachusetts in 1884: A trench 2,100 ft. loing,9i^ 
ft. deep and 20 ft. wide was dug for a conduit along the shore 
of a pond and about 30 ft. away from the water's edge. 
The water in the pond was 8 ft. higher than the bottom of 
the trench, but most of the water that entered the trench 
seeped in from the side farthest away from the pond. The 
water was handled by two Pulsometer Steam Pumps. A 
large quantity flowed in at some places. All water was 
pumped from sumps located ahead of the laying of the 
brick conduit. No underdrains were left under the finished 
conduit. The material excavated was variable. The greater 
part of the conduit was built on a hard, coarse sand and 
gravel bottom; but for several hundred feet quicksand was 
encountered in the bottom. A Carson trench machine was 
used for 10 weeks. The total excavation was 15,100 cu. yds., 
or 7.2 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of trench. The backfill amounted 
to oinly 1.5 cu. yds. per lin. ft. of trench. The itemized cost 
was as follows for 2,100 ft, or 15,100 cu. yds.: 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS, 421 

Total. Per cu. yd. 

Foreman, 66 days at $4.00 $264.00 ) ^^ ^ . . 

159 days at $2.50 397.50 \ ^^'^^^ 

EDgineman, 123 days at $2.50 307.50 0.020 

Fireman, 147 days at $1.75 257.25 0.016 

Pumpman, 94 days at $3.00 282.00 ) ^ ^„^ 

56 days at $1.75 98.00 \ ^'^^^ 

Laborer, 2,400 days at $1.25 3,000.00 0.200 

2,200 days at $1.50 3,300.00 0.220 

Bracer, 366 days at $1.75 640.50 0.042 

Carpenter, 7 days at $2.00 14.00 0.001 

Horse and cart, 88 days at $4.00 . . 352.00 0.023 

Horse and car, 10 days at $3.15 . . 31.50 0.002 

Scraper, 71 days at $5.00 355.00 0.024 

Carson machine, 10 weeks at $45.00 450.00 0.030 

Engines, 103 days at $2.00 206.00 0.014 

Boiler, 129 days at $1.00 129.00 0.009 

Pumps (two), 199 days at $0.80 . . 159.20 0.011 

Derricks, 72 days at $1.00 72.00 0.005 

Tools 71.00 0.005 

Coal, 80 tons at $6.00 480.00 0.032 

Sheeting, loss on, at $14 per M. . . . 200.00 0.013 

Iron, at 3 cts. per lb 15.00 0.001 

Miscellaneous 26.00 0.002 

Total $11,107.45 $0,740 

The backfilling and embankment cost is included in the 
above cost of 74 cts. per cu. yd. of trench excavation. Prop- 
erly it should be separated, as follows: p ,. -. 

Excavating trench $3.20 

Bracing trench, labor 0.30 

lumber 0.10 

Pumping trench 0.45 

Backfilling 0.71 

Embankment 0.69 

Miscellaneous • 0.28 

Total per lin. ft $5.73 

Deducting the backfilling and embankment, we have left 
$4.33 per lin. ft., or 60 cts. per cu. yd. of trench. The back- 
filling itself cost 18 cts. per cu. yd. backfilled. 



-122 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

This same trench work was extended across a pond that 
had been filled with an embankment of gravel and sand 
from a trestle. The trench was excavated in the center of 
this embankment, and was 18 ft. wide, with sheet piles on 
both sides, and its bottom was 6 ft. below the level of the 
pond. The water was handled by two pulsometers and one 
Andrews pump. The trench was 1,550 ft. long, containing 
8,070 cu. yds. and took 125 days to excavate. The Itemized 
cost was as follows: 

Total. Per cu. yd. 

Foreman, 35 days at $3.50 $122.50 $0,015 

150 days at $2.50 375.00 0.047 

Engineman, 146 days at $2.50 .... 465.00 0.058 

Pumpman, 286 days at $1.75 500.50 0.062 

Laborer, 400 days at $1.65 680.00 0.085 

460 days at $1.50 690.00 0.086 

" 2,500 days at $1.25 3,125.00 0.383 

Bracer, 255 days at $1.75 446.25 0.056 

Horse and car, 12 days at $3.15 37.80 0.004 

Engines, 125 days at $2.00 250.00 0.031 

Boiler, 125 days at $1.00 125.00 0.015 

Pulsometers, 223 days at $0.80 .... 178.40 0.022 

Pump (Andrews), 67 days at $2.00 134.00 0.017 

Derricks, 125 days at $1.00 125.00 0.015 

Tools 57.00 0.007 

Coal, 52 tons at $6.00 312.00 0.039 

Spruce, 49 M left in at $14.00 .... 686.00 0.086 

Miscellaneous 35.00 0.004 

Total (1,550 lin. ft.) $8,344.45 $1,032 

This cost of $1.03 per cu. yd. includes some but not all of 
the backfilling. The cost per lin. ft. was distributed as fol- 
lows: 

Per lin. ft. 

Excavating ......^...^ ........ $3.25 

Bracing, labor .,^,..,.... 0.29 

lumber 0.45 

Pumping 0.72 

Backfilling and embankment 0.66 

Total .• $5.37 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 423 

Deducting the backfilling we have $4.71 per lin. ft, which 
is equivalent to 90 cts. per cu. yd. of trench. The backfill- 
ing itelf cost 19 cts. per cu. yd. backfilled. The contractor's 
price was less than half what the work cost him, but it ap- 
pears evident that he did not manage his work very well. 

Cost of Trenching by Cableways. — A cableway con- 
sists essentially of a main cable suspended between two 
towers, and serving as a track for the trolley carrying the 
loaded bucket, which is pulled back and forth by small 
cables from a stationary hoisting engine. The following 
data will give a good idea of what can be done with a cable- 
way. 

Parallel with a railroad track a trench 14 ft. wide by 18 
ft. deep was dug in earth slightly more compact than * 'aver- 
age." A Lambert cableway with towers 400 ft. apart was 
used, and it delivered the buckets to a chute that discharged 
into railroad cars alongside. The writer's record of cost 
was as follows: 

Per day. 

30 men loading buckets, at $1.50 $45.00 

1 signalman (signaling engineman), at $1.75.. 1.75 
1 man hooking buckets to cable's trolley, at $1.75 1.75 
1 man dumping buckets, at $1.75 1.75 

4 men driving sheet plank and bracing, at $1.50 6.00 

5 men spreading earth in cars and moving cars, 

at $1.50 7.50. 

1 engineman 3.00 

1 fireman 1 75 

1 waterboy 1.00 

1 foreman 4.00 

Total $73.50 

The output was 260 buckets in 10 hrs., each bucket holding 
1% cu. yds. of loose earth, which was probably not much 
more than 1 cu. yd. measured in cut. The wages and €oal 
amounted to $76 a day. Hence, not including the cost of 
timber sheeting, nor the hauling and unloading of cars, the 
cost of excavation was about 30 cts. per cu. yd. There was 
no backfilling, as the trench was for a retaining wall. When 
the bucket was traveling 360 ft. from pit to dump, the fol- 
lowing time was required for each round trip: 



424 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Raising bucket 15 seconds. 

Moving bucket 360 ft 35 

Dumping bucket 25 

Returning bucket 35 

liowering bucket 15 

Changing buckets 15 



Total 140 seconds. 

Almost 5 sees, could be saved on each of these six items if 
everything went well, but with the ordinary slight delays the 
above is a fair average for each round trip — that is 2% mins. 
A cableway may be used to advantage in pulling sheet 
planking, and one 2 x 10-in. plank buried 16 ft in the earth 
can be pulled in 1 min., thus making the cost of timber re- 
moval merely nominal. In pulling the plank use a piece 
of 1 X 3-in. iron bent into a U-shape and with a ring welded 
to one leg of the U. It clings to the plank even though it is 
not held by a set screw or the like. 

To move one of these cableways takes a gang of 15 men 
three days if they are ''green" at the work, two days if tney 
are used to it. The anchorage for the main cable is made 
by digging a trench 5 or 6 ft. deep and 16 ft. long, in which 
a log 16 or 18 ins. in diameter and 15 ft. long is laid, and the 
cable carried around its centre. A short narrow trench 
leads off from the main trench so as to give a clear way for 
the cable to pass to the top of the tower. The main trench 
is filled with stones carefully laid over the log, and on top 
of the ground over the log is built a pile of stones 6 ft. high 
X 12 X 12 ft. To move all this rock for the anchors, to 
move the engine, towers, cables, etc., and set up again will 
seldom cost less than $50, and frequently costs $75, to say 
nothing of the lost time. If this cost is added to the cost 
of excavating the earth in a trench 370 ft. long, it will 
amount to several cents per cu. yd. Thus if the trench 
is only 6 ft. wide x 9 ft. deep, there will be 740 cu. yds. in 
370 ft. of trench, and if it costs $74 to move the cableway, 
we have 10 cents per cu. yd. of trenching chargeable to the 
■cableway moving, besides the cost of excavation and back- 
fill. For deeper and wider trenches this cost of moving, 
being distributed over a greater yardage, becomes a com- 



SEWER."^, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 425 

paratively small item. Each case must be treated as a 
separate problem, in ascertaining the cost 

The following data have been obtained fram The Carson 
Trench Machine Co., of Charlesfcown, Boston, Mass., mak- 
ers of the Carson-Li dger wood cable way much used on the 
Rapid Transit Subway, New York City: 

Two A-shaped bents or towers, 20 to 35 ft. high, and 200 
to 300 ft. apart, support the ly2-in. cable along which the 
bucket travels. A hoisting engine at one end with two 
7 X 10-in. cylinders and capable of lifting 5,000 lbs., raises 
and transports the buckets at a speed of 440 ft. a minute, 
or 5 miles an hour. 

Aside from the men required to fill the buckets, the force 
required consists of an engineman, a fireman, a signalman, 
•and a dumpman; and % to %-ton of coal is daily consumed. 
On a sewer in Orange, N. J., 44 buckets (1 cu. yd.) were 
handled per hour on an average, 60 being the maximum. 
The output depends upon the number of men digging, and 
the character of the material, but 250 cu. yds. a day may be 
taken as a good output. 

The following costs are given in letters to the Carson 
Trench Machine Co.: 

Mr. Frank P. Davis, C. E., gives the following for a 
sewer in Washington, D. C: Width of trench 18 ft; depth 
at which cableway began work, 15 ft.; distance of travel 
of 1 cu. yd. bucket, 150 ft; number of trips per hour, 35; 
hours per day, 8; material, cemented gravel. Cost: 

Engineman $2.00 

Fireman 1.25 

Signalman 1.00 

2 dumpers, at $1 2.00 

Coal, oil and waste 1.50 

Interest and maintenance (estimated) 7.00 

$14.75 
30 men picking and shoveling 30.00 

Total for 280 cu. yds $44.75 

Cost of picking, shoveling, hoisting 15 ft and conveying 
150 ft. to wagons, 16 cts. cu. yd. (Note that the wages were 



426 EANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

very low.) Bracing and sheeting was going on at the same 
time; the men did not know they were being timed. 

James Pilkington, of New York, says: *'I have excavated 
and refilled 250 cu. yds. in 10 hours at an expense of 15 
cts. per yard. For rock excavation the cableway has no 
equal. I have taken the machine down and moved 250 ft., 
and put up, and was in working order in three hours and 
fifty minutes.*' This is unusually fast and indicates that 
Mr. Pilkington did not raise his towers by "main force 
and awkwardness." 

Cost of Trenching With Trench Excavators. — In En- 
gineering News, Dec. 24, 1903, Mr. El-nest McCullough, En- 
gineer for the Municipal Engineering and Contracting 
Co., Chicago, 111., gives the following data relating to work 
done by the "Chicago Trench Excavator" — a machine made 
by that company. 

The machine consists of an endless chain provided with 
cutters and scrapers which deliver the earth onto a trav- 
eling belt, the excavators and conveyors being carried by 
a four-wheeled traction engine, which furnishes the power. 
These machines are rented or sold to contractors. 

In laying 7% miles of pipe sewers at Mashfield, Wis., the 
daily cost of operating the machine and laying pipe was 
as follows: 

Operator of trench digger $3.00 

Engineman of trench digger 2.75 

Fireman of trench digger 2.25 

Man trimming bottom of trench 2.25 

2 men bracing trench with plank 4.00 

2 pipe layers, at $2.50 5.00 

2 men furnishing pipe and mortar 4.00 

2 men tamping earth around pipe 4.00 

1 man shoveling earth down to the tampers 2.00 

2 teams and drivers scraping backfill 7.50 

4 men holding the scrapers 8.00 

Total labor per 10-hr. day $44.75 

About %-ton of coal was used daily. 
The trench was 27 ins. wide and averaged 7 ft. deep. 
The best day's run was 850 lin. ft. of trench, or 500 cu. yds. 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 427 

in 10 hrs., in dry clay containing no stones. On another 
day nearly 500 ft. were run in spite of many stops to blast 
out boulders. A fair average was 400 to 500 lin. ft., or 
300 cu. yds., per day. Due to the jarring of the ground 
by the machine it is necessary to brace the trench. 

(I am informed by Mr. McCullou^ that records of 650 
cu. yds. per day have recently been made with this ma- 
chine.) 

These trench excavators are made in four sizes to ex- 
cavate from 14 ins. to 60 ins. in width and up to 20 ft. in 
depth. 

As confirming these data of Mr. McCullough's, the fol- 
lowing records given by Mr. B. Ewing are of value: In the 
summer of 1904, many miles of pipe sewers were built at 
Wheaton, 111., by contract. Two Chicago Excavators were 
used, cutting a trench 2i^ ft. wide, 7 to 18 ft. deep. One 
machine would excavate 750 lin. ft. of trench 7 ft. deep 
through bard clay mixed with small stones, in a 10-hr. day. 
In cutting trenched 15 to 18 ft, a machine would average 
150 to 200 lin. ft. per day, depending upon how much brac- 
ing was necessary. 

Cost of Pumping Water From Trenches. — ^^The cost 
of pumping water from trenches is given by Mr. Eliot C. 
Clarke as follows for three kinds of wet trenches, name- 
ly, **slightly wet," "quite wet" and "very wet." 

In a "slightly wet" trench one hand-pump was used. 

In a "quite wet" trench one steam-pump and a line of 
8-in. pipe was used, sumps or wells being 500 ft. apart; 
the rent of this plant is rated at $3 a day; the engineman, 
$2.50 a day; the price of fuel is not given. 

In a "very wet" trench two steam, pumps and wells every 
250 ft. were used; three enginemen. 

The cost of pumping per lineal foot of trench was as 
follows: 

Depth of trench, ft 5 10 II JO 25 

Slightly wet, cost per ft $0.06 $0.07 $0.10 $0.13 $0.18 

Quite wet, cost per ft 0.71 0.78 0.76 1.04 1.27 

Very wet, cost per ft 1.17 1.19 1.26 1.64 2.26 

Sizes and Prices of Server Pipe. — ^^The manufacturers 
of vitrified sewer pipe have adopted (Dec. 19, 1901) the 



428 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



standard weights and list prices given in Table XVIII. Large 
discounts from these list prices are given. The present 
(July, 1905) discount, for New York City delivery, is 71% 
for all sizes up to and including 24-in. pipe; 59% for 27-in. 
and 30-in. pipe; and 50% for 33-in. and 36-in. pipe. The 
standard length is 2 ft. for pipes up to and including 24-in. 
pipe. The standard length is 21/^ ft. for 27-in. to 36-in. 
pipe. The size of the pipe is designated by its inside di- 
ameter, 

TABLE XVIII. 
Prices and Weights of Standard Sewer Pipe, 



Size, inclies. 




2&8 


4 




5 


6 


8 


9 


Straight pipe, per foot.. . . 


$0.16 


$0.20 


$0.25 


$0.30 


$0.50 


$0.«0 


Elbows and curves 


, each. 


0.50 


0.65 


0.85 


1.10 


2.00 


2.40 


Ys or Ts, Inlets smaUer 














than 15 ins. 


each 


0.72 


0.90 


1.13 


1.35 


2.25 


2.70 


Traps, each... 






1.50 


2.00 


2.50 


8.50 


6.60 


7.50 


Weight, per ft 


,*ib£ 


}....•... 


7 


9 


12 


15 


23 


28 


Size, Inches, 




10 


12 


li 


18 


20 


21 


Straight pipe. 


per 


foot.... 


$0.75 


$1.00 


$1.35 


$1.70 


$2.25 


$2.50 


Elbows and curves 


,each. 


3.00 


4.00 


5.40 


6.80 


9.00 


10.00 


Ys or Ts, inlets smaller 














than 15 ins. 


each 


3.40 


4.50 


6.10 


7.85 


10.13 


11.25 


Traps, each... 







9.00 


15.00 


22.00 








Weight, per ft 


,lbs 


35 


43 


60 


85* 


100 


120* 


Size, inches 




22 


24 


27 


30 


83 


36 


Straight pipe, 


per 


foot.... 


$2.75 


$8.25 


$4.25 


$5.50 


$6.25 


$7.00 


Elbows and curves 


,each. 


11.00 


13.00 


20.00 


27.50 


30.00 


32.50 


Ys or Ts, inlets smaller 














than 15 ins., 


each 


12.38 


14.63 


21.26 


27.50 


31.25 


85.00 


Weight, per ft 


.lbs 


} 


130 


140 


224 


252 


310 


350 








TABLE XIX 














Dimensions of Sewer Pipe 


• 












Standard Pipe. 








Size of 




Thick- 


Depth of 


Cement 


Weight 


Pipe. 




ness. 




Socket. 


Space. 


per ft 




2 in. 




t'^^ m. 




IK m. 


}i 


in. 


6 1bfl 




3 ** 




}i •• 




iVz 


* 


}i 


«« 


7 " 




4 *• 




K " 




1% 


-9 


Vz 


<« 


9 " 




5 " 




ys '• 




1% 


• 


% 


«• 


12 •' 




6 •' 




H " 




1% * 


t 


% 


'« 


15 " 




8 " 




K ;; 




2 


It 


% 


<t 


28 •• 




9 •• 








2 


« 


% 


«* 


28 " 




10 •• 




% " 




2% 


< 


% 


•* 


33 " 




12 " 




1 




2>i 


'« 


y» 


«* 


45 " 




15 " 




I'A - 




2K 


'• 


Yz 


«* 


65 " 




18 •' 




IM " 




2M 


« 


}i 


«« 


75 •• 




20 '* 




1^ " 




3 


« 


% 


(< 


96 •• 




21 •* 




I'A " 




3 




Yz 


«* 


110 " 




22 *• 




1^ " 




3 


' 


% 


•« 


125 *• 




24 *• 




IX " 




S^ 


* 


Yz 


** 


145 " 





SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS, 



429 



Special Deep Socket Pipe. 



Slzo of 


Thick- 


Depth of 


Cement 


Weight 


Pipe. 


ness. 


Socket. 


Space. 


per ft. 


4 in. 


K in. 


a in. 


K m. 


10 lbs. 


6 " 


'A " 


2K " 


% " 


13 " 


6 •• 


K " 


2>^ - 


% " 


17 *' 


8 '• 


K " 


2% " 


^ - 


26 •' 


10 " 


% " 


2X " 


>^ " 


85 •* 


12 " 


1 " 


8 " 


^ " 


48 " 


16 *• 


1^ " 


3 


% " 


70 " 


18 •• 


1^ " 


SH " 


% " 


80 " 


20 " 


1% *• 


3X " 


^ " 


100 '« 


24 " 


1^ " 


4 - 
TABLE XX. 


% *' 


150 " 


I>iineii8ioiis of Donble Strength Sewer Pipe. 






Standard Socket, 






Size of 


Thicks 


Depth of 


Cement 


Weight 


Pipe. 


ness. 


Socket. 


Space. 


per ft. 


15 in. 


IM m. 


2M in. 


K in. 


80 lbs. 


18 " 


1>^ " 


2y, 




K " 


100 " 


20 " 


1% - 


2K 




K *' 


125 " 


21 '* 


1,^4 " 


3 




y» " 


138 " 


22 *• 


1 i ** 


3 




y% " 


155 " 


24 " 


2 - 


3>^ 




H •* 


200 " 


27 " 


2>^ " 


4 




% *• 


260 " 


30 - 


2X " 


4 




M " 


300 " 


33 •• 


2% - 


5 




I'A " 


840 " 


86 " 


2X •• 


5 




IM •' 


880 •' 



Cement Required for Sewer Pipe Joints. — There are 
two kinds of sewer pipe: (1) The standard pipe with 
shallow joints; and (2) the special deep-socket pipe with 
wide and deep joints. The dimensions of these two kinds 
of joints are given in Tables XIX. and XX. Unless other- 
wise specified, the standard pipe with shallow joints is 
used; but many engineers prefer the deep-socket pipe, and 
specify it. 

If the mortar is filled in the pipe joint and cut off ver- 
tically, flush with the face of the bell, the joint is called a 
"flush joint.'* If the mortar is also plastered on the out- 
side, and beveled on a 1 to 1 slope from the outer edge of 
the bell to the body of the entering pipe, the joint is 
called an ''overfilled joint" or a "beveled joint." The 
amount of mortar required for each of these kinds of joints 
is given in Tables XXI. and XXII. I have made no allow- 
ance for the space in the joint occupied by gasket or yarn. 
For discussion of the amount of cement per cubic yard of 
mortar see page 253. 



430 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

TABLE XXI. 

Cement Beqnired to L.ay 100 ft. of Standard Sewer Pipe 

(2-n. Lengths). 

Size of pipe. Ins.. 4 6 8 10 12 16 18 20 2i 

Cu. yds. Mortar :* 

Flush Joints.. .009 .018 .014 .018 .025 .040 .050 .055 .065 
Overfilled".. .020 .036 .058 .072 .087 .116 .160 .260 .310 

Bbls. Cement (1 to 

1 mortar) : 

Flush Joints.. .036 .051 .056 .072 .100 .160 .200 .220 .260 
Overfilled".. .080 .144 .232 .288 .148 .464 .640 1.04 1.24 
Bbls. Cement ( 1 to 

2 mortar): 

Flush Joints.. .027 .039 .042 .054 .075 .120 .150 .165 .195 
OvorQlled •* .. .060 .108 .174 .216 .261 .348 .480 .780 .930 

TABLE XXII. 

Cement Required to Lay 100 ft. of Special Deep Socket Pipe 

(2 -ft. Lengths). 

Size of pipe. Ins.. 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 20 24 

Cu. yds. Mortar :♦ 

Flush Joints.. .035 .050 .060 .075 .090 .130 .145 .170 .260 
Overfilled ". . .065 .100 .140 .170 .200 .800 .340 .440 .600 

Bbls. Cement (1 to 

1 mortar ) : 

Flush Joints.. .140 .200 .240 .800 .360 .520 .680 .680 1.04 
Overfilled".. .260 .400 .560 .680 .800 1.20 1.36 1.76 2.40 
Bbls. Cement (1 to 

2 mortar ) : 

Flush Joints.. .105 .150 .180 .225 .270 .390 :43» .510 .780 
Overfilled".. .196 .300 .420 .510 .600 .900 1.02 1.32 1.80 

To calculate the cost of cement per lineal foot of pipe 
line multiply the fraction of a barrel of cement (given in 
Tables XXI. and XXII.) by the price of cementin dollars per 
barrel. Thus, if cement is $2 per bbl., and the mortar is 
mixed 1 part cement to 1 part sand, and deep-socket pipe 
is to be used with overfilled joints, we find, from Table XXII., 
that a 6-in. pipe requires 0.4 bbl. cement, multiplying this 
0.4 by 2, gives 0.8 ct. per lin. ft. as the cost of cement, 
when cement is $2 per bbl. Under these same conditions 
the cost of cement per lin. ft, for different sizes of pipe, is 
as follows: 

Size of pipe, ins.. 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 20 24 

Cement per ft, cents.. 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.6 2.4 2.7 3.5 4.8 

♦The number of barrels of cement required to make 1 cu. yd. of moftar 
Is given on page 253. I have assumed 4 bbls. per cu. yd. for 1 to 1 mor- 
tar, and 8 bbls. per cu. jd. for 1 to 2 mortar. 



SEWimi^, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 431 

Cost of Hauling Sewer Pipe. — ^^The weight of sewer 
pipe is given in Table XVIII., and if 2 tons (4,000 lbs.) are 
hauled per wagon load, a wagon will carry the following 
amounts of pipe at the costs given: 

size of pipe, ins 4 6 8 10 12 15 18 20 24 

Lin. ft. per wagon 444 266 174 114 92 66 46 40 28 

Cost of Hauling, cts., per 

lin. ft., per mile 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.1 1.6 

The cost of hauling is based upon wages of $3.50 a day 
for team and driver, and 16 miles traveled per day. It is 
assumed that enough men are provided at both ends of 
the haul to load and unload the wagon rapidly enough to 
leave the team time to cover its 16 miles, or that extra 
wagons are provided for each team. The cost of hauling 
12-in. pipe, it will be seen, is l^-ct. per lin. ft. per mile. 
This does not include the cost of loading and unloading the 
pipe, which is practically as much more as the cost of haul- 
ing it one mile. Thus for 12-in. pipe, the cost of loading 
and unloading is i^-ct, per lin. ft., and to this must be 
added the cost of hauling at the rate of V2^ct per lin. ft. 
per mile of distance from the freight yard to the sewer. 
In other words, to calculate the cost of loading and haul- 
ing pipe, determine the actual number of miles from the 
freight yard to the sewer and add 1 mile (to cover the 
cost of loading and unloading), then multiply by the cost 
of hauling given in the table. For example, if the actual 
haul is 1% miles, then, by the rule, add 1 mile, which 
makes 2V2 miles. If the pipe is 10-in. pipe, the table gives 
us 0.4 ct. per ft. per mile, which multiplied 'by the 2^^ miles 
gives 1 ct. 

Cost of Laying Sewer Pipe.— With iVTO laborers fur- 
nishing pipe and mortar to two pipe layers, the cost of 
laying and calking vitrified pipe need not exceed the fol- 
lowing rates: 

Size of pipe ins.... 4 6 8 10 12 18 20 24 
Cts. per lin. ft % 1 IV2 ^V2 3i/i 61/2 8 10 

The wages are assumed to be $2.25 for each pipe layer, 
and $1.75 for each helper. Where men are working very 
hard, under favorable conditions, the costs may be 30% 
less than those above given. These costs do not include 



432 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

trenching or backfilling, but do include tamping isome 
earth around the bottom and sides of the pipe, preparatory 
to backfilling. 

Diagram Giving Contract Prices of Sewers* — ^The dia- 
gram. Fig. 25, is one that I have prepared from data given 
by Mr. G. M. Warren, based upon contract prices for about 
60 miles of sewer work in Newton, Mass., and covering 
a period of four years, 1891-1895. The wages of common 
laborers were $1.50 for 10 hrs. 

The prices for trenching include excavating, sheeting and 
backfilling in earth; and do not relate to work in rock 
or quicksand. 

The price of 1 ct. per inch of diameter of pipe per lin. 
ft. laid, includes hauling of pipe, labor of laying, and ce- 
ment for joints. 

The price of pipe is 70% off the list price given in Table 
XVIII., plus 20% to cover the cost of branches which are 
placed 25 ft. apart. For example, the list price of 12-in. pipe 
is $1.00; and with 70% discount the price becomes 30 cts. 
Now, 20% of 30 cts. is 6 cts., which approximately covers 
the extra cost of branches spaced 25 ft. apart, so that the 
total cost of the pipe for a 12-in. pipe line is 30 cts. plus 
6 cts., or 36 cts. To this is added 12 ctS'. (1 ct. for each 
12 ins. of diameter) to cover the price of "laying," making 
a total of 48 cts., exclusive of trenching. The first 8 ft. in 
depth of trench are dug at a price of 50 cts. per cu. yd. The 
next 6 ft. below are dug at a price of 75 cts. per cu. yd., 
and the price for each succeeding 6-ft. lift is 25 cts. higher 
per cu. yd. than the preceding lift. This is based upon 
the assumption that trench machines are not used, and 
that the earth is raised in 6-ft. lifts. 

To show how to use the diagram, an example will serve. 
Suppose it is desired to know the contract price for a 12-in. 
sewer in a trench 15 ft. deep. Start at the bottom of the 
diagram on the line marked 15, and follow the line up 
until it meets the sloping line marked 12". Then starting 
from this intersection, follow the straight line across the 
page to the right until the side of the diagram is reached, 
when it will be seen that the intersection is just one divi- 
sion above $1.50; and, as each division is equal to 5 cts.. 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS, 



433 



Con+rac+ Prices 
for 
Pipe Sewers. 
Trenches for e"ivJ5"Pipe, 3ih wide 

Trenching^ 0%6'aleep, $0.50 per cu.ycf. 
» 6'ivI4^99 0.75 i> " ^> 
'* /4''fo20'*' 1.00 » i> ^y 
" ?0'f(??d''* f.?5 » " ^' 

Layings P/pe, at / ct. per fnch 
of Diameter per Linea/ Foot. 

Pipe at- 70^ off List Price, 
plus 20^ to cover 
Cosf of Branches. 




^l 



iiiiiiiii 



10 15 ZO 

Depth in Feet, 

PIG. 25. 



4.75 

4.50 

4.25 

4.00 

3.75 

350 

3.^5^ 

3.00 



B.75 g 



?.50' 



?.B5 \ 



Z5 



3.00 



1.75 



1.50 



1.25 



1.00 



0.75 



0.50 



434 EANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

the price is $1.55 for a 12-in. pipe in a 15-^t. trench. This 
price includes contractor's profits. 

Cost of 8-in. Sewer at Ithaca, N. Y. — ^In Engineering 
News, Aug. 20, 1896, Mr. H. N. Ogden, C. El, gives the fol- 
lowing costs of trenching and laying 8-in. sewer pipe in 
Ithaca, N. Y. : The column of labor cost is based on daily 
wages of $1.35 for laborers, $1.50 for pipe layers, and $2 
for foreman. Mr. Ogden has kindly Informed the writer 

Name nt ntrAAt Length Depth of Mate- No. of ^Cost of lahor.-v 
^ttmeoiBireei ^^^^ trench in ft. rial, day's work Total Per ft. 

Wheat 1,134 6.8 l 4 $126.50 $0.11 

Corn 1,504 5.8 2 5 200.70 .12 

Washington 898 4.9 t ly^ 49.50 .12 

Titus 1,391 6.8 4 4^ 318.90 .23 

Plain 1,332 5.0 6 7 209.00 .16 

Buffalo 597 6.7 « 4 108.25 .18 

Fayette 984 5.6 1 4 195.05 .20 

Centre 1,334 6.8 s 7 347.00 .26 

Green 1,919 5.7 » 11 418.85 .22 

Clinton 2,408 5.4 10 11 519.85 .22 

Albany 1,431 5.0 n 9 319.50 .22 

Geneva 1,323 5.3 12 7 373.47 .28 

Cayuga 1,413 6.3 w 10 468.25 .33 

iWet clay ; water 3 ft. down, bailed out. 

2Wet clay ; water 8 ft. down, bailed out, occasional bracing. 

•Wet clay. 

*Loam over wet clay ; water 6 ft. down ; occasional bracing. 

*Wet clay ; water 6 ft, down ; diaphragm pump ; occasional bracing. 

oClay and gravel ; muchwater in places; pump; braced. 

7 Wet clay ; water 4 ft. down ; occasional bracing and pumping. 

8Wet clay ; water 3 ft. down ; 1 diaphragm ; occasional bracing. 

SHalf clay, half gravel ; half close sheeted ; underdrain pumps. 
10 Wet clay, some gravel pockets ; 1 pump ; some bracing. 
iiGravel containing water at 5 ft. ; pump ; half sheeted. 
i2Bheeting and pumping entire ; water at 5 ft. 
i^Loose gravel ; brick pavement removed ; half braced and half sheeted. 

that the working day was 10 hours long. Teams were paid 
$3.50, masons on manholes $3.50 and masons' helpers, $1.50, 
8-in. sewer pipe cost 12i/^ cts. per ft. Natural cement, at 
95 cts. per bbl., laid 120 to 243 ft. of pipe per hbl. (Doubt- 
less neat cement mortar was used.) The work was by con- 
tract, and not all under the same foreman; hence the 
variation in cost shown in the table. 

Cost of a 12-in. Pipe Sewer, Menaslia, Wis. — In 1903, 
some pipe sewers were built in Menasha, Wis., by day labor. 
I am indebted to Mr. S. S. Little for the following data: 
There were 2,200 ft. of trench, about half of which was for 
12-in. pipe and half for 15-in. pipe. The depth of trench 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 435 

ranged from ly^ to 10 ft., averaging 9 ft, and the width was 
2 ft. The material was solid red clay. Wages paid were 
$1.75 per 10-hr. day. Some team work, at $3.50 a day, was 
used in scraping in the backfill. The lahor of trenching lay- 
ing pipe, and back filling averaged 37 cts. per lin. ft. of 
trench. 

Cost of 8-in. to 18-in. Sewers at Cardele, Ga. — In En- 
gineering News, March 30, 1893, Mr. Geo. G. Earl, C. E., 
gives the cost of some pipe sewer work at Cardele, Ga. 
Wages were 80 cts. to $1 per day for labor (presumably ne- 
groes) and the foreman received $70 a month. 

Size of pipe. 



8 Inches. 

8 

8 

8 
10 
10 
12 
18 
18 



Depth 




Cost of 


Cost of 


of cut 


Length 


lahor. 


foreman. 


In ft. 


in ft. 


cts. per ft. 


cts. per ft. 


5.9 


1,185 


14.1 


l.O 


7.0 


3,090 


22.8 


1.9 


8.0 


900 


33.8 


1.9 


11.2 


487 


85.2 


5.8 


7.0 


225 


26.7 


.... 


7.1 


298 


35.5 


1.6 


5.4 


1,044 


27.0 


1.1 


e.7 


963 


33.5 


1.7 


10.6 


867 


79.2 


4.0 



The "Cost of Labor" given in the fourth column includes 
trenching, pipe laying and backfilling. 

In building 2.6 miles of sewer (2 miles of which were 
8-in.) and 35 manholes, the total cost was: 

Labor $3,867 Brick $252 

Masons and helpers. . 462 Cement 166 

Sundries 17 Hauling 82 

Foreman 266 Manhole covers 283 

Supervision 1,000 Tools and incidentals. . 561 



Pipe 2,635 

Total $9,596 

Cost of Sheeting at Peoria, 111. — ^On a trench 13 ft. wide 
X 45 ft. deep, at Peoria 111., sheeting in 16-ft. lengths cost 
as follows for labor: 

2 men on top, at $2 $4 

2 men setting sheeting, at $2.50 5 

8 men driving sheeting, at $1.50 12 

8 men pulling sheeting, at $1.50 12 

2 men moving lumber ahead, at $1.50 3 

Total daily wages of gang $36 



436 HANDBOOK OF C08T DATA, 

This gang sheeted 12 lin. ft. of trench per day at a cost 
of $3 per lin. ft, all work being by hand; this is equivalent 
to 6% cts. per lin, ft. of trench for each foot of depth. If 
2-in. sheet plank were used, there were 192 ft. B. M. of sheet 
plank per lin. ft. of trench and probably 38 ft. B. M. of 
stringers and braces, say 230 ft. B. M. per lin. ft. From 
which we see that driving and pulling sheeting, including 
bracing, cost for labo-r about $13 per M. (= 1,000 ft. B. M.) 
at the rate of wages above given, which is a high cost. 

The cost of exactly the same kind of work, using an 
Adams' trench machine with steam power for driving and 
pulling the sheeting, was as follows: 

2 timber men on top, at $2 $4.00 

2 men setting, at $2.50 ' 5.00 

1 man operating driver 2.00 

2 helpers, at $1.50 3.00 

1 man pulling 2.00 

2 helpers, at $1.50 . 3.00 

1 engineer 2.00 

1 man moving lumber ahead 1.50 

Coal, oil, steam hose and repairs 2.50 

Total $25.00 

Twelve lineal feet of trench, 45 ft. deep, were timbered per 
day at this cost of $25, or at $2.08 per lin. ft., which is prac- 
tically % the cost by hand above given, and in addition the 
wear of the sheet plank was less than with hand driving. 

The following cost of sheeting is for hand work, trench 
being 12 ft. wide x 35 ft. deep: 

2 timber men on top, at $2 $4.00 

1 man setting 2.50 

6 men driving, at $1.50 9.00 

4 men pulling, at $1.50 6.00 

1 man moving lumber 1.50 

Total $23.00 

At this cost, 13 lin. ft. of trench were sheeted per day, or 
at the rate of $1.77 per lin. ft. 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 437 

Smaller trenches, 8 ft. to 16 it deep iti sand, cost from 10 
to 25 cts. per lin. ft. for labor of sheeting with 2 x 8-in. hem- 
lock. Stringers in trenches 35 ft. or more deep were 8x8 
ins. yellow pine, with 6 x 8-in. white pine braces. In 
trenches of less depth 6 x 6-in. hemlock stringers and braces 
were used. The above costs do not include wear and tear 
on timber. Some sewer contractors figure on using hemlock 
sheeting about 4 times, with hand-driving, before it is worn 
out. 

Cost of 12-in. Sewers in Toronto, Canada. — A large 
number of 12-in. pipe sewers were built by day labor for the 
city of Toronto in 1891, at the following costs: 

3 

9 



So . 


Sou. 


ti 


^ ri. 


is 


1- 
o 2 


1^ 


10' 10" 


Quicksand 


1,041 


5 


6 


15 


$1.95 


IV 2" 


Clay 


4.427 


19 


21 


240 


1.27 


18' 0" 


Blue clay 


650 


3 






2.11 


12' 1" 


«' 


180 


1 




15 


2.20 


11' 6" 


<• 


251 






4 


2.41 


8' 1" 


«* 


800 


3 


4 


29 


1.33 


9' 9" 


<« 


483 


4 


2 


24 


1.78 


11' 2" 


Clay loam 


430 


2 


2 


13 


0.96 


10' 8" 


«« 


357 


3 




17 


1.90 


11' 0" 


Hardpan 


320 


2 


2 


18 


1.28 


11' 3' 


Sand 


535 


3 


2 


5 


1.50 



21 11' 4" Av. of above 9,474 45 39 380 1.51 

Note. — ^The cost per ft. includes all materials, labor and 
inspection of work. It also includes the manholes and catch- 
basins, and the Y-connections. The 12-in. pipe cost 22 cts. 
per ft; brick was $8.50 per M. Laborers were paid 15 cts. 
per hr., and a few special men were paid 18 cts. per hr.; 
bricklayers were paid 40 cts. per hr. 

Brick Sewer Data. — Brick sewers are either "circular" 
or **egg-shape.'* In either case the upper part of the sewer 
is called the "arch," and the lower part is called the "in- 
vert." The depth of a brick sewer, as given on profiles, is 
the depth from the surface of the street to the inside of the 
bottom of the sewer, so that the thickness of the sewer in- 
vert should be added to secure the full depth of the trench. 
The thickness of a brick sewer is usually expressed in 
/'rings." A "one-ring" sewer is made one brick thick; that 



438 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

IS, 4 ins. thick plus the cement plaster which is usually 
%-in. thick; so that a one-ring sewer is 4i/^ ins. thick. A 
two-ring sewer is two bricks, or 9 ins. thick. A three-ring 
sewer is three bricks, or IZVz ins. thick. 

The size of a sewer is denoted by its inside diameter. 

Brick sewers, like pipe sewers, are usually paid for by the 
lineal foot of sewer including trenching; but it is desirable 
always to calculate the brickwork in cubic yards. Table 
XXIII. gives the number of cubic yards of brick masonry 
per lineal foot of circular sewer. 

For intermediate sizes interpolate between the values 
given in the table. 

To calculate the number of cubic yards per lineal foot of 
any circular sewer, proceed as follows: Add the inside diam- 
eter in feet to the thickness of the sewer in feet; this gives 
the "average diameter." Multiply this "average diameter'* 
by 3 1-7: then multiply the quotient by the thickness of the 
sewer in feet and divide by 27. 

For example, a 5-ft. sewer has walls 9 ins. thick (it is a 
"two-ring" sewer); and, as 9 ins. = % ft, we have by the 
rule: 5 + % = 5% as the "average diameter;" then 5% 
X 3 1-7 X % -i- 27 = % cu. yd. per lin. ft. 

Sewer bricks are of a better quality than common building 
bricks, and usually cost $1 per M more than common bricks. 
Ordinarily about 500 bricks are required per cubic yard. 
About 2% must be added to cover the wastage. 

Since the joints are V-shaped, and since the inside of the 
sewer is usually plastered, more mortar is required than in 
plain brickwork. About 0.35 to 0.4 cu. yd. of mortar is re- 
quired per cu. yd. of brick masonry. The number of barrels 
of cement required to make 1 cu. yd. of mortar is given on 
page 253. 

In building 5-ft. circular sewers at Dawrence, Mass., in 
1886, 1 part natural cement to 1% parts sand was used; and 
it required 2i^ bbls. of cement per thousand bricks. 

At Newton, Mass., a 24 x 36-in. egg-ishaped sewer re- 
quired 1.5 bbls. of cement per cu. yd., the mortar being mixed 
1:1%.. There were 509 bricks per cu. yd. of sewer mason- 
ry, not including the waste; and 520 bricks including waste. 

At Los Angeles, two-ring 40-in. circular sewers required 
0.4 bbl. Portland cement per lineal foot of sewer, which is 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 439 

equivalent to 1.12 bbls. cement per cu. yd. of brick masonry. 
The mortar was 1 part cement to 2 parts sand. 

Mr. Desmond Fitzgerald gives the following as averages of 
cost of brick sewer work done by certain contractors at 
Boston, prior to 1894. 

r-Per cu. yd.-^ 

Labor $2.89 $3.40 

Brick (560 to 580 per cu. yd.) 5.48 5.30 

Sand 0.30 0.40 

Natural cement, 1.27 bbls 1.35 1.50 

Centers 0.23 .20 

Miscellaneous 0.19 .20 

Total per cu. yd, $10.44 $11.00 

The first example is the cost of a well handled job of 
1,300 cu. yds. of brick masonry. The second example is the 
average of several jobs. Brick cost $9.50 per M; and nat- 
ural cement $1.13 per bbl. The mortar was probably mixed 

TABLE XXIII. 

Brick Masonry in Circular Sowers, Cu. Yds. per I^ineal Ft, 

Diameter One-Blng Two-King Three-Ring 

Ft. Ins. (4>ilns.) (9 ins.) (13>^ Ins.) 

a 0.103 0.240 . 

2 8 .114 .261 

2 6 .125 .280 

2 9 .136 .305 

3 .147 .327 

3 8 .168 .349 

3 6 .16^ .871 

8 9 .ISO .393 

4 .191 .415 

4 3 .202 .436 

4 6 .213 .458 

4 9 .228 .480 

5 .284 .501 .802 
5 3 .245 .51^3 .834 
5 6 .256 .545 .867 

5 9 .267 .567 .900 

6 .278 .589 .933 

6 8 .611 .966 

6 6 .633 1.000 

6 9 .655 1.081 

7 .677 1.063 

7 6 .720 1.128 

8 .763 1.193 

8 6 .807 1.260 

9 .851 1.825 

9 6 .895 1.890 

10 .938 1.456 



440 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 





TABLE XXIV. 




k Masonry in 


Sgg-shaped 


Sewers, Cu. Yds. 


per liineal 


Dimensions 


One-Eing 


Two-Ring 


Three-Ring 


Ins. 


(4>^ Ins.) 


(9 Ins.) 


(13^ Ins.) 


12x18 


0.071 


0.176 




14x21 


.081 


.194 




16x24 


.090 


.212 




18x27 


.099 


.231 





20x30 


.108 


.249 




22x33 


.117 


.267 




24x36 


.126 


.286 




26x39 


.136 


.304 




28x42 


.145 


.322 




30x45 


.154 


.341 


.... 


32x48 


.163 


.359 




34x51 


.172 


.374 




36x54 


.182 


.896 




38x57 


.191 


.414 


• • • • . 


40x60 


.200 


.433 


0.698 


42x63 




.451 


.725 


44x66 


• • . • • 


.469 


.758 


46x60 




.488 


.781 


48x72 




.506 


.808 


50x75 




.524 


.836 


52x78 




.543 


.863 


54x81 




.561 


.891 


56x84 




.579 


.918 


58x87 




.598 


.946 


60x90 


••••• 


.616 


.973 



1 part cement to 1^/^ parts sand. Wages of bricklayers were 
probably 50 cts. per hr., and helpers 15 to 20 cts. per hr. 

Bricklayers on sewer work often receive abnormally high 
wages. In some cities the labor unions have forced up the 
price to $1 per hour! In such cases a bricklayer is usually 
required to lay not less than 3,000 bricks a day; and I have 
known as high as 5,000 bricks to be laid by a very skilful 
and rapid layer. 

The dimensions of egg-shaped sewers are given in terms 
of the inside diameter of the upper arch, and the inside 
height of the sewer; thus a 30 x 45-in. sewer, is one having 
an upper arch 30 ins. inside diameter and an inside height 
of 45 ins. The Phillips Metropolitan Standard (English) 
egg-shaped sewer has an inside height which is 1% times 
the diameter of the arch. Calling the diameter of the arch 
d, the other dimensions are: 

Radius of invert % d 

Radius of side 1^ d 

Height 11/2 d 

Area of waterway 1.15 d* 

Perimeter 3.96 d 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS, 441 

The first dimension given in the first column of Table 
XXIII. is d. The table gives the number of cubic yards of ma- 
sonry per lin. ft. of egg-shaped sewer. 

'Cost of Brick Manholes.— -The walls of brick manholes 
are generally 8 ins. thick up to 12 ft. in depth, and 12 ins. 
thick below. The cross-section of manholes is usually 
elliptical, 3 ft. x 4i/^ ft., up to the neck of the manhole 
which is circular and narrows down to about 24 ins. in di- 
ameter. The cast iron ring and cast iron cover weigh 
from 375 lbs. to 650 lbs., the lighter weight being used in 
village streets. A common weight for use in cities is 
475 lbs. These "manhole heads" are carried in stock by 
manufacturers of sewer pipe, and are listed in their cat- 
alogues. The following is the actual cost of a manhole 
built by day labor for a Western city: 

2,000 hrick at $6 $12.00 

475-lb. ring and cover, at 2 cts 9.50 

2% bbls. Louisville cement, at 75 cts 2.00 

1 cu. yd. sand 1.50 

24 hrs. brick layer, at 55 cts 13.20 

24 hrs. helper, at 18% cts. 4.50 

Total $42.70 

It will be noted that the mason averaged less than 700 
bricks per 8-hr. day, which indicates that he realized that 
he was working for a city and not for an individual. How- 
ever, small jobs like manhole-work are apt not to be 
handled with rapidity. Consult, for comparison, the data 
on manhole work given on page 456. 

Cost of Pipe and Brick Sewers, St. Louis. — Mr. Cur- 
tis Hill gives the following data, which are averages of 
work done by contract during three years, April, 1901, to 
April, 1904. The work consisted in building 40 miles of 
pipe sewers, 12 to 24 ins. diam., and 13 miles of egg-shaped 
(18 X 27-in. to 48 x 60-in.) and circular (60 to 108-in.) 
sewers. The egg-shaped sewers were 9 ins. thick; the 
circular sewers were 13 ins. thick. The excavation was, 
for the most part, in stiff clay, only a small amount of 
quicksand occurring. Trench excavators were not very sue- 



442 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



cessful, because the "joint clay'* caved in if not well braced 
as fast as excavated. The Chicago Sewer Excavator, how- 
ever, made the best records made with trench excavators. 
Potter trench machines were largely used for the smaller 
trenches, and cableways for the larger trenches. The Potter 
machine consists of a movable trestle, and a bucket car 
that rides on tracks on top of the trestle bents. This car 
is moved back and forth by a stationary hoisting engine, 
which also hoists the buckets. The legs of the trestle span 
the trench and are provided with wheels that rest on rails. 
The following table gives the actual average cost to 
the contractors, including foremen and superintendence, 
but not including interest and depreciation of plant, insur- 
ance of men, and office expenses. 

COST OF PIPE AND BEICK SEWEES, ST. LOUIS 





Earth Excavation. 


1 


Brick Masonry. 




Brick 
Sewers. 


Cut in 
feet to 
sub- 
grade. 


Cu. yds. 

per laborer 

per 

hour. 


o ^ 


Cu. yd. 

per mason 

per 

hour. 


Cost of 

labor and 

mason per 

cu. yd. 


Cost of 

material 

per 

cu. yd. 


Total 
cost per 
cu. yd. 


12K'xl5'* .... 

9' circular t 

6' circular t 

5' circular t 

2' X 3'$ 


30 
26 
17 
16 
11 


1.0 
0.8 
0.8 


: pop: 

. OO05. 


1.18 
1.00 
0.97 
0.95 
0.80 


$1.71 
1.87 
1.75 
1.80 
2.40 


$6.13 
6.13 
6.30 
6.30 
6.10 


$7.84 
8.00 
8.05 
8.10 
8.50 







* Method of excavation was steam shovel followed by a cable-way. 
The lumber bracing cost $3.60 per running foot of sewer. 
t Potter trench machine used, 
i No trench machine used. 

The "cu. yds. per laborer per hr." means the number of 
cubic yards excavated and loaded into buckets by each la- 
borer actually engaged in digging. The average of all the 
work, including pipe sewers, was about 9 cu. yds. excavated 
per man per 10-hr. day. 

On pipe sewer trenches where no machinery was used 
the cost of earth excavating was as follows: 

size of pipe. Ins. Depth In ft. Cost per cu. yd. 

24 15 $0.50 

21 16 0.50 

21 7 0.35 

18 8 0.35 

15 16 0.56 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 443 

It cost 90 cts. per cu. yd. to excavate loose rock in the 
trenches 15 and 16 ft. deep; and $3.80 per cu. yd. to ex- 
cavate solid rock. 

''Four men, the bottom man and his helper, with two 
men handling and lowering the pipe, laid 21-in. and 24-in. 
pipe at the rate of sixteen lineal feet per hour. Three men 
will lay the same amount of 15-in. or 18-in. pipe in the same 
time. Including the material for jointing, the cost of lay- 
ing pipe is 10 cts. per lin. ft. 

"A good sewer brick mason will lay from 400 to 500 bricks 
per hr. There is one case where four masons, working on 
a 6%-ft. brick sewer, each averaged 600 bricks per hr., and 
kept it up for several days, but this is far above the 
average.*' 

The average contract prices for the three years (1901-4) 
was as follows: 

12-in. pipe, per lineal foot $0.45 

15-in. pipe, per lineal foot 0.55 

18-in. pipe, per lineal foot 0.80 

21-in. pipe, per lineal foot 1.00 

24-in. pipe, per lineal foot 1.60 

Pipe junctions, extra, each 1.50 

Slants for brick sewers, each 0.65 

Earth excavation, per cubic yard 0.55 

Loose rock excavation, per cubic yard 1.60 

Solid rock excavation, per cubic yard 4.00 

Concrete, per cubic yard 6.50 

Brick masonry, per cubic yard 9.40 

Vitrified brick masonry, per cubic yard 12.20 

It will be noted that the excavation was paid for as a 
separate item, and not included with the pipe or brick. 

Mr. Hill informs me that on a recently completed brick 
sewer, requiring 287 days to build, two Potter machines 
and a cableway were used. There were 49,918 cu. yds. of 
Class "A" excavation (earth), 6,629 cu. yds. of class "B" 
(loose rock), and 33 cu. yds. of Class *'C" (solid rock). 
There were 2,303 lin. ft. of 9-ft. sewer, 3,240 lin. ft. of 8-ft. 
sewer, 254 lin. ft. of 7-ft. sewer, 1,607 lin. ft. of 5y2-ft. 
sewer, and 1,203 lin. ft. of 4 x 5-ft. sewer. These required 
8,177 cu. yds. of hard brick masonry and 723 cu. yds. of 



444 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



COST OF A WEEK'S SEWER WORK ON FOUR JOBS 



Kind of 
Trench Mach. 



Foreman 

Laborer 

Bottom man. 
Water boy... . 

Team 

Watchman . . . 
*Machine 



Potter 



Wages 
per 
hour 
$0.50 

.30 
.15 
.50 
.25 

1.50 



Total for excavation 
Total cu. yds. •* 
Cubic yards per hour 

per man 

Cost per cubic yard . 
Depth of trench, ft 

Kind of soil 



Size of sewer 

Length of sewer, f t. . . 



Brick Mason . . 

Helper 

Mortarman . . 



1)0.75 
.25 

.27K 



Job No. 1 



Hrs. 
54 

1,089 
50 
54 
54 
63 
64 



Wages 

$27.00 

245.02 

15.00 

8.10 

27.00 

15.75 

81.00 



Hrs. 
54 

1,000 
47 
54 



$418.87 
980 

0.9 

$0.43 

19^ 

Sandy 

3 X 4 ft. 
300 



104 
104 
104 



$78.00 
26.00 
28.60 



Total $132.60 



Cu. yds. brick masonry 

Cu. yds. per mason per hr. . . 
Cost of labor per cubic yard 

masonry , 

450 brick at $8.25 M 

0.7 bbl. cement (l-3mort.) at 

$1.50 

0.2 cu. yd. sand, at $1.10. . . . 
Total per cubic yard brick 

masonry 



112 

1.08 

$1.20 
3.71 

1.05 
0.22 



$0.18 



Potter 



Job No. 2 



54 



00 

225.00 

14.10 

8.10 



81.00 



$355.20 
600 

0.6 

10.60 

23 

Stiir earth 
and clay 

2Kx3>^ft. 
154 



68 
84 
84 



$51.00 
21.00 
23.10 



$95.10 



61 
0.90 

$1.56 
3.71 

1.05 
0.22 



$6.54 



Carson 



Job No. 3 



Hrs. 

54 

640 

54 

54 



54 
54 



$27.00 

144.00 

16.20 

8.10 



13.50 
81.00 



$289.20 
407 

0.64 

$0.71 

18 

Stiff earth 

fire clay and 

30% loose rk, 

18-in. pipe 

244 



4>^ lin. ft. of 
pipe (double 

strength) 

laid per hour 

per bottom 

man (or 

pipe layer), 

whose wages 

are 30 cents 

per hour 



None 



Job No. 4 



Hrs. 

9 
126 

9 

9 



Wages 

$4.50 

28 36 

2.70 

1.35 



$36.90 
120 

0.95 
$0.31 
Shallow 

Black loam 

21-in. pipe 
108 



12 lln. ft. of 
pipe per hour 
per bottom 
man. 
Trench 
shallow, 
no scaffold- 
ing or 
bracing 



*A trench machine Is rented for $125 per month, and burns 15 bushels of 
coal per 9-hour day. When the rental and fuel costs are added to the wages of 
engineman and fireman, the total cost is $1.50 per hour. 

vitrified brick masonry. The excavation C*A," *'B" and 
"C") cost 68 cts. per cu. yd., of which 11% cts. was the 
cost of the trench machines. The total cost of this trench 
excavation (56,580 cu. yds.), including labor of bracing and 
backfilling, was as follows: 



Foreman, 6,400 hours, at 50 cts $3,200.00 

Laborer, 87,000 hours, at 221/2 cts 19,575.00 

Bottom-man, 6,360 hours, at 30 cts 1,908.00 

Waterboy, 3,800 hours, at 15 cts 570.00 

Team, 10,450 hours, at 50 cts 5,225.00 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 445 

Watchman, 4,800 hours, at 25 cts $1,200.00 

Machine, 4,400 hours, at $1.50 6,600.00 

Total $38,278.00 

Most of the trenches require bracing, the timber for which 
costs 2 cts. to 10 cts. per cu. yd. of excavation, which is 
not included in the above. Yellow pine costs $18 per M. 

The wages of foremen, Waterboys and watchmen are all 
charged against excavation, and no part against masonry. 
The cost of laying the brick masonry was as follows: 

Masons, 9,400 hrs., at 75 cts $7,050.00 

Helpers, 1,400 hrs., at 25 cts 3,500.00 

Mortarmen, 10,750 hrs., at 27% cts 2,956.25 

Total for 8,900 cu. yds., at $1.52. $13,506.25 

The masons averaged 422 bricks per hr., or 3,376 bricks 
per 8-hr. day. 

Cost of Large Brick Sewers, Denver, Col. — Mr. W. W. 

Follett gives the following data on brick and concrete 
sewers built by day labor in Denver, Ool.: Work was be- 
gun Aug., 1894, and finished June, 1895. Work was car- 
ried on in the winter which added somewhat to the cost. 
The wages paid were high and the hours of labor short. 
The men were considered to be efficient. The following 
were the number of day's work performed and the wages 
per 8-hr. day: 

726 days, foremen, at $3.33% to $5. 
1,398 days, stone masons, at $3.60. 
1,491 days, brick masons, at $4.00. 

385 days, watchmen, blacksmiths, and timbermen, at 
$2.50. 
8,115 days, labor, at $2.00. 
7,628 days, labor, at $1.75. 

363 days, Waterboys, at $1.00 to $1.25. 
2,150 days, team with driver, at $3.50. 

252 days, enginemen and pumpers, at $3.00. 

Note. — Sec. 1 was built in filled ground containing city 
refuse. The original ground was about level with the 
invert, and had been filled with 2 to 5 ft. of refuse. The 



446 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



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SEWERS. CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 447 

bottom of the trench was 2 to 4 ft. below the level of a 
river near by, so that there was much pumping. The back- 
fill was largely hauled in with wagons, as the material from 
the trench was not a suitable backfill. The sewer had a 
concrete base 8 ins. thick and 16 ft. wide, on top of which 
was a stone cradle. The invert was a single ring of brick, 
^nd the arch was three rings. 

Sec. 3 was nearly all in good ground, but there was 
water all along it. The cross-section of the sewer was the 
same as in Sec. 1, except with less diameter, giving about 
80% as much material. 

Sec. 6 contained rock for its full length, but the rock 
was very soft, being in places hardly more than indurated 
clay. The trench averaged 11 ft. deep, and was timbered all 
along. No water was encountered. The sewer was three- 
ring brick. 

Sec. 7 was similar in every way to Sec. 6, except that a 
loose sand overlaid the ro<3k. 

Sec. 8 was in gravel containing much water. The cut 
averaged 12 1^ ft. deep. 

Sec. 9 was in fine, loose sand heavily charged with 
water. The average cut was 14 ft. deep. 

The concrete foundations were made 1:3:6 Portland 
cement and crushed, unscreened sandstone. The stone 
was estimated on a basis of 2,500 lbs. per cu. yd. Con- 
crete was hand mixed and delivered in wheelbarrows. The 
average cost of 1,545 cu. yds. of concrete was as follows: 

0.732 bbl. cement $2,543 

0.754 cu. yd. stone 1.409 

0.424 cu. yd. sand 0.148 

Water 0.007 

Labor ($1.75 an 8-hr. day) 0.703 

Total per cu. yd $4,810 

The stone cradle was built of a soft sandstone which 
broke out square in the quarry so that little hammering 
was required in the trench. It was bought by the ton. 
Louisville (natural) cement, weighing 265 lbs. per bbl., 
was used in a 1 : 2 mortar. The average cost (not In- 



448 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

eluding enigineering) of 6,438 cu. yds. of this stone cradle 
was as follows: 

1.297 cu. yds. of rubble $1,975 

0.875 bbl. natural cement 1.261 

0.305 cu. yd. sand 0.130 

Water 0.005 

Labor (masons, $3.60, laborers, $2.00, for 8 hrs.) . 1.284 

Total per cu. yd $4,655 

The invert brick ring of Sec. 3 was laid in 1 : 3 Port- 
land mortar, and the same mortar was used in plastering. 
On Sees. 1, 3 and 5 a 1 : 2^/^ Louisville mortar was used; 
and on Sees. 6, 7, 8 and 9, a 1:3 Louisville throughout. 
One foreman handled 18 brick layers divided into three 
gangs, the total number of his force, including helpers 
and laborers, being 80 men. The amount of cement per 
cubic yard of brickwork, by sections, was as follows: Sec. 
10, 0.835 bbl,; Sec. 3, 1 bbl.; Sec. 5, 1.07 bbls.; Sec. 6, 0.87 
bbl.; Sec. 7, 0.937 bbl.; Sec. 8, 0.99 bbl.; Sec. 9, 0.876 
bbl. The number of brick per cubic yard ranged from 431 
on Sec. 3 to 450 on Sec. 6. The average cost of 6,702 cu. 
yds. of brickwork on all sections was as follows, per 
cu. yd.: 

439 brick $4,584 

0.92 bbl. cement 1.953 

0.41 cu. yd. sand 0.198 

Miscellaneous 0.229 

Labor 2.384 

Total per cu. yd $9,348 

The labor cost ranged from $2 per cu. yd. on Sees. 1 and 
3 to $2.95 on Sec. 9. 

A neat form of steel centering was designed and used as 
follows: Light, 8-lb., dump-car rails were bent so as to 
form half-rings; the lower half-ring (or semicircle) be- 
ing bent with the head of the rail facing out, and the 
upper half-ring with its head facing in, as shown in Fig. 
26. A short piece of rail was laid with its flange against 
the flange of the lower half-ring and riveted. One of 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 



449 



these short pieces of rail was thus riveted at each end of 
the lower half-ring. Thus it was possible to butt the ends 
of the upper half-ring against these short pieces of rail 
riveted to the lower half-ring, and connect the two with 
fish-plates and bolts. In order tO' be able to ''strike'* 
(remove) these steel centers, a bevel-joint was made, ^p^ 



Q 



Q 






I i 
i i 



View of Joint 
Looking across 
the Sewer from 
its Center. 




iShoyf Piece 
\ offfailbo/fe^ 
\fo Lower Raii 



View of Joint 

Looking along 

the Side of the 

Sewen 



FIG. 26. 

shown in the figure. This was done by sawing one end of 
the upper half-ring across on a bevel, and sawing a similar 
bevel on the end of the short piece of rail against which 
it butted. After the fish-plate bolts were removed, a blow 
of a hammer would readily knock the two half-rings apart 
at the bevel-joint. It will be noted that the 2-in. lagging 
was laid upon the flange of the upper half-ring, no lagging 



450 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

being used on the lower half-ring, as the invert was 
built of brick. 

To hold the lagging to the upper half-ring, it was 
found best to make little iron clips, three of which were 
fastened to the underside of each 12-ft. stick of lagging, 
using two wood screws for each clip. The end of the clip 
slipped over the flange of the steel rail, but was not screwed 
or bolted to the rail, so that each stick of lagging was 
quickly removed by shoving it endwise. These steel cen- 
ters or rings were placed 2 ft. 5 ins. apart, c. to c, so that 
40 rings sufficed to set up centers for 96 ft. of sewer. Two 
men would take down, clean and set up 96 ft. of this cen- 
tering in a day, making the cost of moving centers about 
4 cts. per ft. of sewer. In building 8,290 ft. of sewers, three 
sets of steel centers and two sets of lagging were used, 
costing $775 for materials and labor of making, or 9.3 cts. 
per ft. of sewer, making a total cost of a little over 13 cts. 
per ft. of sewer for making and moving lagging and ma- 
terial. There were only three sets of rings because there 
were only three sizes of sewers, 70, 77 and 94-in. 

Cost of a Concrete and Brick Sewer. — Mr. William 
G. Taylor, City Engineer of Medford, Mass., gives the fol- 
lowing data O'f work done in 1902, by day labor for the 
city. Figure 27 is a cross-section of the sewer, which has 
a concrete invert and sides and a brick arch. The concrete 
was 1:3:6 gravel. The forms for the invert were made 
collapsible and in 10-ft. lengths. The two halves were 
held together by iron dogs or clamps. The morning fol- 
lowing the placing of the concrete the dogs were removed 
and turnbuckle hooks were put in their places, so that 
by tightening the turnbuckle the forms were carefully sepa- 
rated from the concrete. The concrete was then allowed 
to stand 24 hrs., when the arch centers were set in place. 
These centers were made of % x 1%-in. lagging on 2-in. 
plank ribs 2 ft. apart, and stringers on each side. Wooden 
wedges on the forward end of each section supported the 
rear end O'f the adjoining section. The forward end of 
each section was supported by a screw jack placed under 
a rib 2 ft. from the front end. To remove the centers, the 
rear end of a small truck was pushed under the section 
about 18 ins.; an adjustable roller was fastened by a 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 



451 



thumb screw to the forward rib of the center; the screw 
jack was lowered allowing the roller to drop on a run 
board on top of the truck; the truck was then pulled back 
by a tail rope until the adjustable roller ran off the end 
of the truck; whereupon the truck was pulled forward 
drawing the center off the supporting wedges of the rear 




'PorHane/ Cement Corrcr, 
_^ / Cement, 3 sanet, 6 gratr^t 

FIG. 27 

section. In this manner not the least injury was done to 
the fresh concrete. 

Each lineal foot of sewer required 1% cu. yds. of exca- 
vation; 4 cu. ft. of concrete, and 1 cu. ft. of brick arch. 
The sewer was 1,610 ft. long and was built by day labor, 
wages being $2 for 8 hrs. The material excavated was 
gravel and clay. 

Excavation and backfill: Per cu.yd. Per 1 in. ft. 

Excavation, labor, 25 cts per hr $0,339 $0,424 

Bracing 0.026 0.032 

Backfilling 0.168 0.210 

Waterboy 0.017 0.021 

Kerosene 0.009 0.011 

Lumber 0.035 0.044 

Total $0,594 $0,742 



m HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Concrete masonry: Per cu. yd. Per lin. ft. 

Portland cement, at $2.15 per bbl $2,292 $0,343 

Labor mixing and placing 3.017 0.452 

Cost of forms 0.187 0.028 

La'bor screening gravel* 0.471 0.070 

Carting 0.592 0.088 

Miscellaneous 0.146 0.021 

Total $6,705 $1,002 

Brick masonry: Per cu. yd. Per. lin. ft. 

492 brick, at $8.50 per M $4,182 $0,153 

IVs bbls. cement,t at $2.25 per bbl 3.026 0.111 

Forms .". 0.408 0.015 

Labor, mason 1.343 O.049 

Labor, helpers 2.091 0.077 

Carting 0.680 0.025 

Incidentals 0.340 0.012 

Total . $12,070 $0,442 



♦The gravel and sand were obtained from the excavation. 
tThi8 includes cement used in plastering the arch. 

The cost of this 80-m. sewer was, therefore, $1.44 per 
lin. ft. exclusive of the excavation which cost 74 cts. per 
lin. ft. The cost of brickwork in manholes was $15.34 per 
cu. yd. It should be noted that wages were high ($2 per 
8 hrs.) and that the work was done by day labor, thus mak- 
ing the cost higher than it would be to a contractor. 

Cost of a Brick Conduit. — ^A conduit of horse-shoe 
shape, 7y2 ft. in diameter, was built with a brick arch 
8 ins, thick and a concrete invert lined with brick 4 ins. 
thick. The cost of the concrete work is given on page 3^. 
The following relates only to the brickwork. Work was 
done by contract, in 1884, in Massachusetts. The cost of 
960 M of brickwork was as follows: 

Labor: 

Foreman, 39 days, at $5.00 $195.00 

Laborers, 320 days, at $1.25 400.00 

Laborers, 1,752 days, at $1.50 2.628.00 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 453 

Masons, 753days, at $4.90 $3,601.50 

Carpenter, 4 days, at $2.50 10.00 

Horse and car, 90 days, at $3.15 283.50 

Miscellaneous labor 23.75 

Materials: 

Brick, 960,000, at $8.40 per M 9,024.00 

Cement, 315 bbls. Portland, at $3.20 1.008.00 

Cement, 1,681 bbls. natural, at $1.26 2,118.06 

Sand, 571 cu. yds., at $1.20 685.20 

Plant: 

Boiler, 15 days, at $1.00 .15.00 

Pumps, 101 days, at $0.25 25.25 

Cars and tools 79.00 

Forms and centers 304.00 

Coal, 12 tons, at $6.00 72.00 

Office building 57.00 

Total $20,529.26 

General expense, time keeper, watchman, etc. . 1,038.36 

Grand total $21,567.62 

These 960 M of brick made 1,600 cu. yds. of masonry, or 
570 bricks per cu. yd. About 5% were culled and rejected. 
It took 1.23 bbls. of cement per cu. yd. Masons each aver- 
aged 1,250 bricks per day, which was a poor average for 
men paid such high wages. The cost per cubic yard of 
this brick masonry was: 

Per cu. yd. 

Masons laying, at 49 cts. per hr $2.38 

Laborers tending, including unloading, etc., at 15 

cts. per hr 2.07 

Brick, 570 at $8.40 per M 5.59 

Sand, 0.35 cu. yd., at $1.20 0.42 

Cement, 1.23 bbls 1.55 

Forms 0.19 

General expense and miscellaneous 1.05 

Total per cu. yd $13.25 



454 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of Tile Drains. — Clay tiies for drainage purposes 
are usually round in section, and are usually made in 1-ft. 
lengths. In soil that can be spaded, a special ditching 
spade should be used. The blade of this type of spade is 
narrow and very long (18 ins.), and strongly curved for- 
ward to give greater stiffness. With such a spade, a trench 
5 ft. deep, and not more than 15 ins. wide at the top, can 
be dug. Trenches 3 ft. deep are 10 to 12 ins. wide on top, 
and are taken out in two spadings, or benches. The bot- 
toms of the trenches are shaped so as to fit the tile, by 
using a tile hoe or scoop of proper shape, different widths 
being used for different sizes of tile. The tiles are laid 
by a man standing on the surface of the ground, using a 
tile hook for the purpose of placing the tiles in the trench. 
The trench is backfilled by a team dragging a plow pro- 
vided with a long evener, so that there is one horse on each 
side of the trench. 

In "Practical Farm Drainage," C. G. Elliott gives the 
following as the actual cost of draining an 80 -acre farm 
in Illinois: 

, Tile. » Cost per lln. ft. , 

Size, Lin. Depth, Tile, Laying, Total, Total, 

ins. ft. ft. cts. cts. cts. 

3 7,030 3 1.82 2.00 3.32 $238.40 

4 8,280 SK 2.00 2.00 4.00 331.20 

5.... 850 4 3.00 2.42 5.42 46.07 

6 2,700 5 4.00 3.66 7.86 206.82 

7 1,000 5 6.00 3.72 9.72 97.20 

Total, 80 acres at $11.43 per acre $914.69 

The cost of "laying," as above given, includes the cost 
of digging the trench, laying the pipe and 'backfilling. The 
men were paid $2 a day, being skilled diggers and tile 
layers. The soil was a black loam 2% ft. thick, under which 
was a yellow clay subsoil. 

For tile up to 6 ins. diameter, Elliott estimates ll^ cts. 
per lin. ft. for labor of trenching 3 ft. deep and laying the 
tile; and he allows 0.3 ct. per lin. ft. for backfilling. 

The manufacturers of tile do not have uniform list 
prices from which discounts are given. The following net 
prices are quoted (1905) for New York delivery in car-load 
lots: 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 455 

Weight, Net price per 

Size of drain tile, ins. lbs. per ft. ft., cts. 

2 8 1.45 

2}4 4 1.72 

3 5 2.18 

4 7 3.04 

5 9 3.93 

6 12 5.38 

8 19 8.20 

10 28 14.50 

12 40 18.80 

Tile drains are frequently used for road drainage. In 
such cases the trench is usually filled part way up with 
broken stone or gravel, the cost of which must be included 
in the bidding price per lin. ft. of drain. Tile collars to be 
used at joints are occasionally specified, but they are of 
questionable value, and are rarely used in land drainage. 
On roadwork done by the author, the cost of laying 4-in. 
tile in a trench was i/4 ct. per lin. ft, exclusive of digging 
the trench and filling with gravel. The man laying tile re- 
ceived 16 cts. per hr., and he averaged 640 ft. laid per 
10-hr. day. 

In New Jersey roadwork, where tile drains are used, the 
4-in. tiles are frequently specified to be laid on a 1-in. yel- 
low pine plank, 6 ins. wide, in a trench 2 ft. deep. If plank 
costs $20 per M delivered this item adds 1 ct. per lin. ft. 
The average bidding price in New Jersey has been about 12 
cts. per lin. ft. for a 4-in. tile drain complete. 

Vitrified .Conduit Data.— Vitrified conduits for carry- 
ing electric wires underground are made in single or mul- 
tiple ducts. A single duct is a pipe 18 ins. long with a 
round or square bore ranging from 3% to 4 ins. diameter. 
Multiple ducts are made with two or more ducts in one 
piece. The common multiples are 2, 3, 4, 6 or 9 ducts in 
one piece. The lengths of the pieces are 24 or 36 ins. Ducts 
are sold by the duct-foot, and the present price in New 
York City is about 3% cts. per duct-foot. A six-duct mul- 
tiple has 6 duct-feet per lin. ft., and its price is therefore 
6 X ^Vz, or 21 cts. per lin. ft. of the 6-duct piece. The 
weight varies somewhat with different manufacturers, but 
8 lbs. per duct foot may be used for estimating freight and 
haulage. 

I am informed by one of the large manufacturers that 



456 HANDBOOK OF CO^.T DATA, 

the 9-duct multiple is not so popular as it once was, due 

to loss by breakage. 

The outside dimensions of vitrified conduits are about 

as follows: 

Jumber of ducts In the piece 12 3 4 6 9 

Dimensions of the piece, ins 5x5 5x9 5x13 9x9 9x13 13x18 

These ducts are all square bore, 3% ins., square with 
rounded corners. 

Cost of Laying Electric Conduits* — ^My own cost rec- 
ords for this class of work cover only two sizes of vitrified 
pipe conduits encased in concrete. One of these conduits 
was made of four-duct pipe, each duct being 3% ins. in- 
side diameter, the four ducts being baked together in one 
piece 18 ins. long. First a trench was dug 2 ft. 8 ins. deep 
and 18 ins. wide:, then a bed of concrete 4 ins. thick was 
laid in the trench. Upon this concrete the conduit was laid, 
every joint being wrapped with a strip of cheap cotton 
cloth. Then concrete was packed on both sides of the 
conduit and 4 ins. thick over its top. The labor cost of 
laying this conduit, not including the cost of trenching 
and the cost of making and placing the concrete, was as 
follows: Two men laying the duct pipe and one helper 
delivering pipe from piles along the sidewalk, averaged 
60 lin. ft. of 4-duct conduit laid per hour, which is equiva- 
lent to 120 ft. of single duct per hour. With wages of duct 
layers at 20 cts. each per hour, and helper at 15 cts. per 
hour the cost of laying was a trifle less than 1 cc. per lin. 
ft. of 4-duct conduit, or i/4 ct. per ft. of single duct. 

In laying a 9-duct conduit (each piece of pipe having 
9 ducts instead of 4 as above), two men laying were sup- 
plied with pipe by two helpers. This gang averaged 30 
lin. ft. of 9-duct conduit per hour, at a cost of 2.3 cts. per 
lin. ft. of conduit, or i^ ct. per ft. of single duct. Prom 
this it appears that the labor cost of laying the pipe is 
practically the same per duct-foot, whether 4-duct or 9-duct 
conduit is laid. 

At another time, one man laying a single duct line (ex- 
clusive of trenching and concreting) averaged 66 lin. ft. 
per hour, at a cost of a trifle less than V4. ct. per ft. The 
work in all these cases was done by day labor for the com- 
pany. 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS. 457 

Cost of Brick Manholes for Electric Conduits. — 

Square manholes were built with brick walls 12 ins. thick. 
The bottom of the manhole was concrete, and the top 
was reinforced concrete. The following data relate only 
to the brick work: Each manhole contained 4.6 cu. yds. 
of brick masonry, and the following gang averaged 1% 
days to each manhole, the day being 8 hrs. long: 

2 masons, at $3.00 $6.00 

3 helpers, at $1.50 4.50 

Total per day $10.50 

Therefore, it cost $18.35 per manhole for the labor on 
the brick work, which is equivalent to $4 per cu. yd. of 
brick masonry. Since each manhole contained 2,140 bricks, 
eiaich mason averaged about 600 bricks laid per 8-hr. day. 
This was very slow work. It was done by day labor for 
a company. 

Cost of Vitrified Conduits, Memphis, Tenn. — Mr. P. 

G. Proutt gives the following data on electric vitrified con- 
duit construction at Memphis, Tenn., in 1903: The work 
was done by day labor, the wages of common labor- 
ers (negroes) being $1.50 per day. There were about 
3,700 ft. of trenches containing 27 ducts, and 7,200 ft. 
of trench containing 18 ducts, besides which there were 
575 ft. of trench containing from 6 to 60 ducts, making in 
all 11,475 ft. of trench and 252,000 duct feet. An 18-duct 
conduit was made up of three 6-duct sections (no single 
duct sections were used), each section measuring 9 x 13 
ins., sections being laid one on top of the other. The 
ducts were surrounded on all sides with concrete 3 ins. 
thick, making 6 ins. of concrete, 27 ins. of ducts and 30 
ins. of backfill, or a trench 5% ft. deep for an 18-duct con- 
duit. The width of the duct, 13 ins., plus 6 ins. for con- 
crete, gives a trench 19 ins. wide, or about 8% cu. ft. (less 
than % cu. yd.) of excavation per foot of trench. The 
27-duct conduit was made up of 4 multiple ducts of 
6 ducts each, and one multiple of 3 ducts, laid 
in tiers, making the trench 6i/4 ft. deep and 19 ins. 
wide, or about 9.4 cu. ft. per foot of trench. Roughly speak- 



458 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

ing, all the trench work averaged % cu. yd. excayation per 
foot of trench. All 6-duct sections were 3 ft. long, and all 
3-duct sections were 2 ft. long. 

The executive force consisted of 1 general foreman at $3; 
1 foreman of pipe layers; 1 foreman of concrete mixing 
gang; 1 foreman in charge of digging for manholes; 1 
foreman in charge of hackfilling and hauling away, and 1 
time keeper. There were 8 men on manholes and service 
hoxes, 80 men trenching, concreting and pipe laying. The 
best day's work was 703 ft. of trench and 15,156 duct feet. 

In laying the ducts, the 3-in. concrete bottom was first 
placed, then 2 men in the trench laid the lower tier or run, 
two men on the bank handing the sections down by means 
of a rope run through one of the holes. This run was 
followed by a similar gang of 4 men 'WOTking a few 
lengths back. Three dowel pins were used in each section. 
The joint was made with a strip of cheap canvas 5 ins. 
wide by 5 ft. long laid on the bottom before placing the 
ducts. A boy followed* along, wrapping the canvas over 
the top joint and painting the lap with asphaltum. To cut 
the canvas into strips a table was made with a saw kerf 
in it 5 ins. from one edge and at this edge was a strip 
against which to push the bolt of cloth. A large butcher 
knife was then run through the saw kerf and cloth, cutting 
off a strip 5 ins. wide and the length of the bolt. This strip 
was wound on a reel whose circumference was 5 ft., and 
a cut through the cloth at the circumference made strips 

5 ft. long. 

The concrete was mixed with "Dromedary'* mixers cost- 
ing about $200 each. A "Dromedary" mixer holds about 
% cu. yd. of concrete, and is hauled by two horses in 
tandem. Half the charge of sand is shoveled in, then the 
cement, then the rest of the sand, and finally the stone. 
The door is closed and the mixer hauled about 150 ft. to 
the water tank and from 6 to 8 pails of water are thrown 
in. If the concrete must be rehandled the mixer is hauled 
to a dumping board 6 ft. wide by 24 ft. long, made in two 

6 X 12-ft. sections. 

The cost of 252,000 duct feet, laid in 11,475 ft of trench, 
was as follows: 



SEWERS, CONDUITS AND DRAINS, 459 

254,500 duct feet (1% broken), at 5i^ cts $13,997 

45 cars of ducts unloaded, at $7.50 338 

Labor trenching, backfilling, concreting and duct 

laying 7,745 

Materials for 882 cu. yds. of 1:4:8 concrete,* at 

$5.22 4,604 

32 brick manholes,t at $115 3,680 

31 manhole drains,! at $86 2,666 

48 service boxes,§ at $30 1,520 

4,300 lin. yds. canvas (5 ft. wide), at 5 cts 215 

5 bbls. asphalt paint, at $30 150 

40,000 dowel pins for ducts, at % ct 200 

Tools 800 

City water 50 

Plumbers repairing water pipes 100 

New sidewalks 600 

RepaTing city streets 1,000 

City inspection 195 

Engineering 1,000 

Incidentals 1,140 

252,000 duct feet, at nearly 16 cts $40,000 



*Each cubic yard of 1:4:8 concrete required 0.96 bbl. ( a bbl. being 
counted as 4 cu. ft.) cement at $2.10 per bbl.; 0.56 cu. yd. of sand at 
$1.25 per cu. yd. ; and 1.36 short tons of broken limestone at $2 a ton. 

tEach manhole was 8-slded, 5 ft. wide by 7 ft. long and 6>^ ft. deep, in- 
side measure, with 13-in. brick walls, a 6-in. concrete floor, and a 12 -in. 
concrete top reinforced by old rails. There were 3,200 bricks in each 
manhole at $7.50 per M. ; there were nearly 4 cu. yds. of concrete In the 
bottom and top at $5.75 per cu. yd. for materials. Masons were paid $6 
a day and helpers $2. The ccflst of excavating for and building a manhole 
areraged about $40, The iron rails cost $5. The cast-iron cover for each 
manhole weighed 1,150 lbs. costing 1.9 cts. per lb. 

JManhole drains averaged 170 ft. long of 6 in. sewer pipe, costing $10 
for materials and $76 for labor. 

§ Service boxes contained 325 bricks each, and were 8 ft. square inside, 
with 9-in. walls, and provided with cast-iron covers like the manhole cover. 

Cost of Making Cement Pipe. — Mr. Arthur S. Bent 
gives the following data: In 1892 four miles of 28-in. 
cement pipe were laid for an irrigation system in River- 
side Co., California. The mortar was mixed by hand in 
boxes holding V2 cu. yd., and was hoed over 3 times dry 
and 3 times wet. It was then tamped (17-lb. tampers) by 
hand into sheet iron molds. 

The pipe was 28 in3. diameter, 2^/^ ins. thick and in 2- 



460 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



ft. lengths. The mixture used was 1 part Portland cement 
and 3% parts pit gravel and sand. A gang of 25 men made 
1 mile of pipe per week, or 35 ft. per man per day, or 1% 
cu. yds. of concrete per man per day. With wages at $1.75 
a day the labor cost was $1 per cu. yd. of concrete in the 
pipe, or 5 cts. per lin. ft. of pipe. This pipe line, after 
seven years of use, showed no appreciable loss of water in 
its 4 miles of length. 

The Miracle Pressed Stone Co., of Minneapolis, Minn., 
manufacture molds for making cement tile and cement 
sewer pipe with bell ends. Their catalogue contains the 
data given in the following table: 





Kind of 


a 




pipe. 


P 


24" 


Bell-End . . 


. 2" 


24" 


Straight. ., 


. 2" 


20" 


Ben-End . . 


. IX" 


20" 


Straljxht . . 


. 1%" 


18" 


Bell-End . . 


. IK" 


18" 


Straight . . 


. 1%" 


3 5" 


Ben-End.. 


. 1/^^" 


15" 


Straight . . 


. 1^" 


12" 


■ Bell-End . . 


. ly^" 


12" 


' Straight . . 


. IH" 


10" 


' BeU-End . . 


. 1%" 


10" 


' Straight . . 


• 1%" 



Cemei 


at Pipe, 


in 3 -ft. 


Lengths. 






sand. 


75 cts. 


per cu. yd. ; cement 


, $2 per bbl. ; 


labor, $2 per day.) 










— -Pipe, 2 ft. long. 


. 




q-l 


^ 


'*-i^ 


4-1 . 


CO 2 


CD 


o . 


o • 


O fl 


o u 


o P< 


O xa" 


.'d 


-d 


o 


o 


o-^ 


ot-i 




6^ 


6§ 






s^ 

o^ 


o 








g<M 


H 


2.75 


$0,075 


$0,460 


$0.15 $0,685 


$0.34 


2.25 


.063 


.370 


.12 


.558 


.28 


1.95 


.056 


.325 


.13 


.511 


.26 


1.67 


.045 


.266 


.09 


.401 


.20 


1.84 


.550 


.230 


.13 


.445 


.22 


1.50 


.450 


.190 


.10 


.335 


.17 


1.40 


.039 


.235 


.11 


.384 


.19 


1.17 


.033 


.195 


.08 


.308 


.15 


1.10 


.030 


.180 


.10 


.310 


.16 


.88 


.025 


.145 


.07 


.240 


.12 


.83 


.250 


.105 


.10 


.230 


.12 


.68 


.020 


.850 


.07 


.175 


.09 



Cost of Concrete-Steel Sewers.- 

crete Construction, pages 365 to 382. 



-See Section VL, Gon- 



SECTION IX. 
GOST OF PILING, TRESTLING AiND TIMBER WORK. 

Piles.^ — Foundation piles are piles driven to support a 
bridge, building or other structure. They are usually 
spaced not closer than 3 ft. center to center. 

Trestle piles are driven to form the posts of a trestle. 
There are usually 4 piles driven in a row; and these 4 
piles, with their 12 x 12-in. cap and sway braces, are called 
a hent In wagon road trestles 3 piles are enough for a 
bent. In falsework for bridge spans two piles to a bent will 
suffice for moderate spans, the bents being located just in 
advance of the panel points. 

Batter piles are piles driven inclined; or driven plumb 
and afterward pulled over into an inclined position. 

Sheet piles are piles driven touching one another so as 
to form a tight enclosure, as for a coffer-dam. Triple-lap 
sheet piles are often made by bolting or spiking three 
planks together, the middle plank being set off line from 
the outer planks, so as to form a rough tongue and groove. 
This is the Wakefield piling, the patent for which has re- 
cently expired. Interlocking sheet piles are made of steel, 
in a number of different forms. 

Rings, or iron bands, are generally placed around the 
heads of wooden foundation or trestle piles to protect the 
head from "brooming" and splitting while being driven. 

Shoes of cast or wrought iron were formerly used very 
often to protect the toes of piles driven in hard material; 
but shoes are rarely used nowadays. 

Piles are sold by lumber dealers at 5 to 15 cts. per lin. 
ft of pile for all ordinary lengths, but very long piles 
bring high prices per lin. ft. Specifications usually provide 
a contract price per lin. ft. for "piles delivered" on the 
work ready to drive; and another price per lin. ft. for 
"piles driven." The length of the "pile driven" is the full 



462 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

length of the pile left in the work after cutting off the 
broomed head. 

The actual cost of driving a pile should be recorded in 
dollars and cents per pile, as well as in cents per lin. ft. 
of pile driven; for costs vary less per pile than per lin. 
ft. This is evident when we consider that where the driv- 
ing is easy a very long pile is driven in no longer time than 
is required for a short pile where driving is hard. 

The author prefers to specify payment for "piles deliv- 
ered" by the lineal foot, and for "piles driven," by the pile. 

Pile Drivers. — There are three types of pile drivers: 
(1) Free-fall; (2) friction-clutch; and (3) steam-hammer. 
In the free-fall driver, the hammer is detached from the 
hoisting rope and allowed to fall freely upon the pile. 
In the friction-clutch driver, the hammer remains always 
attached to the hoisting rope, and, by means of a friction 
clutch on the hoisting engine, the drum is thrown into 
gear or out of gear at will. When the clutch is thrown 
out of gear, the hammer falls, dragging the hoisting rope 
after it. The Nasmyth steam-hammer is raised by steam 
acting direct upon a piston attached to the hammer. The 
hammer is raised about 3i^ ft., and allowed to fall by 
gravity. 

A steam hammer strikes about 60 blows per minute. A 
friction-clutch hammer strikes about 18 blows per minute 
when the hammer falls 12 ft.; and 25 blows per minute 
when the hammer falls only 5 ft. A free-fall hammer 
strikes about 7 blows per min. when the fall is 20 ft, and a 
hoisting engine is used. 

The free-fall hammer is much used where horses do the 
hoisting instead of an engine, in either case a lug on top 
of the hammer is gripped by a pair of "tongs," which are 
tripped at the desired height, allowing the hammer to fall. 
The "tongs" descend slowly by gravity helped perhaps 
by the man who has tripped them, and they automatically 
grip the hammer again. The "tongs" are also called 
"scissors" or "nippers." 

The two upright timbers that guide the hammer are 
called "leads," or "leaders," or "gins," or "ways." A com- 
mon weight of hammer, for a free-fall or a friction-clutch 
machine is 2,000 to 3,000 lbs. 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 463 

An "overhang driver" is a driver provided with leads that 
project 8 to 20 ft. beyond the base of support of the driver. 
The horizontal beams that support the leads of an over- 
hang driver are trussed; and the weight of the engine on 
the rear of the trussed beams counterbalances the weight 
of the leads and the hammer on the front. A cheap driver 
of this type can readily be made for driving the bents of 
a pile trestle across a river, or other body of water, where 
a scow is not available for mounting the driver upon. The 
author has built such a driver with a 20-ft. overhang for 
driving falsework pile bents across a river. 

A "railway pile driver" is a heavy driver of the "over- 
hang" type, mounted on a railway flat car. Sometimes 
these drivers are made self-propelling; but frequently a 
locomotive is used in handling the driver. The leads are so 
made that they can be lowered when passing under over- 
head bridges, etc. In working with an overhang driver, 
there is always considerabe delay, for as soon as the 3 or 
4 piles for a bent have been driven, they must be sawed off 
and capped with a 12 x 12-in. stick drift-bolted to the piles, 
before the beams or stringers can be laid to support the 
driver when it moves forward. 

A "scow driver" will drive more piles per day than a 
"railway driver," because this delay in sawing off and 
capping each bent does not occur. Moreover, the piles are 
floated alongside the driver ready for instant use. The 
scow itself is quickly shifted by means of ropes from suit- 
able anchorages to the winch-heads of the engine. 

Excepting on railway work, land drivers (as distinguished 
from scow drivers) are seldom mounted on wheels running 
on a track; but are usually supported on rollers running 
on plank or timber runways laid down in advance of the 
driver. If the ground is very irregular, it must either be 
graded, or the timber runways for the driver must be sup- 
ported by cribbing or blocking so as to give a level run- 
way for the driver. The building of such a runway often 
retards the work of land-driving. 

Excepting where the driving is exceedingly hard, the 
hammer is actually at work but a small fraction of the 
day at best. The contractor should, therefore, exercise his 
wits to reduce the lost time. 



464 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

There are no very reliable data as to the relative effec- 
tiveness of the blows of steam-hammer drivers and friction- 
clutch drivers, but the following data by Mr. N. E. Weydert 
may prove of value: 

In driving piles in Chicago, piles 54 ft. long were driven 
52 ft., of which 27 ft. were in soft clay, and 25 ft. in tough 
clay. Each pile averaged 13 ins. in diameter. Using a 
Nasmyth steam hammer, s;triking 54 blows per minute, 
with a weight of 4,500 lbs. falling 3% ft., it required 48 
to 64 blows to drive the last foot when a follower 20 ft. 
long was used on top of the pile; but, without a follower, 
it is estimated it would have taken only 24 to 32 blows to 
drive the last foot. After a pile had stood 24 hrs. it re- 
quired 300 to 600 blows of the hammer on the follower to 
drive it 1 ft. 

In the same soil, using a 3,000-lb. drop hammer falling 
30 ft., and striking a follower 20 ft. long, it required 16 
blows to drive the last foot; but with the same hammer 
falling 15 ft., it required 32 to 36 blows on the follower to 
drive the pile the last foot. 

The piles were tested with a load of 50 tons each for two 
weeks and showed no settlement. 

The Steam Haminer vs. the Drop Haxiimer.* — Some 
50 yearts ago, when the Nasmyth steam hammer came 
into prominence as a pile driver, it was predicted by en- 
gineers who had seen it that the days of the rope-hoisted 
hammer were numbered. Nor is it uncommon to read 
similar predictions even to this day. That the steam 
hammer weighing two tons and striking 60 blows a min- 
ute is a very effective machine no one can deny, but what 
appears to have been overlooked by many engineers is 
the fact that in nearly all driving of piles on land, a very 
small fraction of the working day of a pile-driving gang 
is spent in actual driving. This is particularly the case in 
building pile trestles with a railroad pile driver. 

A record kept by the writer shows very clearly how little 
time is ordinarily spent in pile driving on trestle work, 
using the ordinary railroad pile driver with a friction-clutch 
engine. Each trestle bent consisted of four piles driven 



♦Abstracted from an editorial article written by the author for En- 
gineering News, July 2, 1903, p. 13. 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 465 

about 10 ft. into firm, di^ earth, and bents were 15 ft. 
e. to c. It took about 20 blows of a 2,800-lb. hammer falling 
about 18 ft. to drive each pile, and, once the pile was in 
the leaders, these 20 blows were delivered in from 1 to 2 
minutes, depending upon minor delays in keeping the pile 
plumb. The piles were not ringed. Hence we may say 
that in so far as the actual time of driving four piles was 
concerned, only 8 minutes were thus consumed per bent at 
the most. About 4 or 5 minutes were required to get each 
pile into the leaders, thus consuming some 20 minutes per 
bent. 

Tabulating the time consumed in performing each de- 
tail we have: 

Minutes. 

(1) Getting 4 piles into leaders 20 

(2) Driving 4 piles 8 

(3) Straightening and bracing the piles 27 

(4) Leveling and nailing guide strips for sawing off 10 

(5) Sawing off 4 piles 12 

(6) Putting on cap and drift bolting it 13 

(7) Pulling 3 stringers forward from last bent 11 

(8) Putting in 3 more stringers that overhang 20 

(9) Putting in 1 tie and spiking rail 4 

Total time on one bent 125 

Item (4) was unnecessarily long, due to the hair-splitting 
methods of the Y-level man, who was giving the cut-off. 
Even after the cleats to guide the saws were nailed on, 
he had them lowered %-in. 

Items (3) and (5) may frequently be reduced very ma- 
terially, and always would he on contract work, hut on 
work done for a railroad company, as this was, the end 
of the 10-hour day will find only 4 to 6 bents huilt under 
the conditions here given. If however, we assume a bent 
of four piles built in 100 minutes, we see that only 8 min- 
utes of that time will be consumed in actual driving. In 
other words, only three-quarters of an hour out of the ten 
hours is spent in hammering the pile! This will doubt- 
less be surprising to many engineers, and particularly to 
those who have been impressed by the speed of the Nas- 
myth steam hammers. Under a hustling, wide-awake con- 



466 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

tractor, the writer has seen 10 hents driven and completed 
in a day with a friction-clutch driver; but even under 
such conditions the hammer was actually at work driving 
less than two hours. 

It seems quite clear from the foregoing discussion, that 
maintenance-of-way engineers should look not to improve- 
ments in the form of hammer mechanism, but rather to im- 
provements in the mechanism and methods of handling the 
piles, caps, stringers, etc. Very much can be accomplished in 
this respect by having a well-organized force with a clear- 
headed foreman at its head. In the example just cited 
the item of straightening piles was exceedingly expensive 
in time, in that it consumed nearly half an hour. This was 
largely due to the fact that the foreman did not appreciate 
the importance of sawing the pile heads square. He sim- 
ply put the piles into the leaders with the heads rough 
sawed as they came from the forest. In one case the pile 
had a large prong of splintered wood projecting above the 
partly sawed head. Haste never makes more waste than 
in neglecting to square the pile heads, and guide the pile 
properly while driving it. 

In this particular instance, since the driving was across 
dry land, the foreman should have secured a team with 
which to "snake" piles and timbers up alongside of or 
directly in front of the driver. Then the pile rope or 
"runner*' could have been quickly hooked on to a chain 
already fastened around the pile or timber to be moved, 
with a saving of 50% in the time spent in getting material 
to place. It does not pay to make a team out of a pile 
driver and a gang of men. 

Instead of spending 13 minutes getting a cap to place 
and drift-bolting it, not more than 6 or 7 minutes need 
have been so consumed. Two men can cross-cut a pile in 
4 or 5 minutes, hence with eight men on four saws, item (5) 
can be reduced at least one-half. Running around looking 
for saws, mauls, drift bolts, etc., is one of the greatest 
causes of delay. For this reason there should be one or 
two men whose duty it is to bring tools and put them away 
immediately after they have served their purpose. The two 
leader men on the driver might well attend to the tools. 

We see, by this method of timing, why the Nasmyth 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 467 

steam hammer has failed to displace the friction-clutch 
hammer on trestle work, and we see that if any improve- 
ment is desirable in driver design it is not in the hammer 
mechanism, but rather in the means of mechanically han- 
dling the timbers. Finally we see that organization of 
the force is quite as essential as improvement in mechan- 
ism, while it possesses the decided advantage of costing 
nothing except what may be paid for a better quality of 
brain work. 

Prom this discussion it should not be inferred that the 
steam hammer has no field of usefulness, for it has. Its 
field, however, is in scow or land driving, where a great 
number of foundation piles are to be driven close together, 
and especially where a great number of blows must be 
struck to secure the desired pile penetration. 

Cost of Raymond Concrete Piles. — The Raymond con- 
crete pile (patented 1896) is made as follows: A collapsible 
steel core, 30 ft. long, 20 ins. diam. at the top and 6 ins. at 
the bottom, is driven into the ground by an ordinary pile- 
driver. When it has reached the proper depth, a wedge is 
loosened, permitting the two sections of the core to come 
closer together, so that the core can be easily pulled out of 
the hole. In a sticky clay the hole would probably keep its 
shape until filled with concrete, but ordinarily the sides of 
the hole will collapse if not supported, so it is necessary to 
slip sleeves or shells of sheet iron over the core before driv- 
ing it. These shells are left in the ground upon pulling the 
core, and they form a mold for the concrete. For a pile 25 
ft. long, the shells are made in four lengths of No 20 iron 
that telescope, one over the other. They are slipped over 
the lower end of the core as it hangs in the pile-driver leads, 
and a rope is hitched around the outer sleeve. The engine- 
man hoists the shells until they are all ''un-telescoped" and 
hugging tight to the core, like joints of stove pipe on a man- 
drel. The rope is unfastened and the driving begins. 

On the following work, the hammer weighed 3,100 
lbs., and was operated by an ordinary friction clutch 
hoisting engine. The pile-driver had leads 50 ft. long, and 
was mounted on a turntable; the framework of the turn- 
table in turn resting on rollers traveling on timbers laid on 



468 nANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

the ground. The driver was moved along, and rotated when 
necessary, by ropes passing around the winch head of the 
engine. The hammer blow was received by an oak block 
fitting in a recess at the top of the steel core. This oak blo'ck 
was so battered by the blows that it had to be renewed 
about every 5 or 6 piles driven. A %-in. wire rope piassing 
over a 10-in. sheave lasted for the driving of 130 piles, and 
then broke. With a larger sheave the life would have been 
much longer. My records show that when work was first 
begun, the crew averaged 10 piles per day of 10 hrs., but the 
average of the job in driving piles for the 'foundatioin of a 
building was 13 piles a day, the best day's work being 17 
piles. The cost of labor and fuel per pile was as follows: 

5 laborers on pile driver, at $1.75 $8.75 

2 laborers handling the iron shells, at $1.75 3.50 

1 engineman 3.00 

6 laborers mixing and placing concrete 10.50 

1 foreman 5.00 

Coal and oil 2.50 

Total, 13 piles, at $2.55 $33.25 

This includes the placing of the concrete, which, if de- 
ducted, leaves less than $2 per pile for driving the core. A 
pile 25 ft. long, 6 ins. at the point and 18 ins. at the butt, 
contains 21^4 cu. ft. (nearly 0.8 cu. yd.), and has a surface 
area of 77 sq. ft. The weight of No. 20 iron (B. & S. gage) is 
1.3 lbs. per sq. ft., making the weight of the iron shells 
approximately 100 lbs. per pile. The amount of cement in 
the concrete may be varied to suit the whim of the engi- 
neer or architect, from 1 bbl. to 2 bbls. per cu. yd. Probably 
1^ bbls. per cu. yd. is more than necessary. In the ease 
under consideration the quantities and costs were as fol- 
lows: Per pile. 

1.2 bbls. cement (in 0.8 cu. yd.), at $1.75 $2.10 

0.8 €U. yd. stone, at $1.25 LOO 

1/3 cu. yd. sand, at $1.05 0.35 

100 lbs. No. 20 iron (made into shells), at ZV2 cts 3.50 

Labor (as above given) 2.55 

Total, 25 ft. pile $9-50 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWOKK. 469 

The contract price v/as $25 per pile, or $1 per lin. ft., and 
Included, of course, cost of moving plant to and from the 
work, royalty on patent, etc. 

To give an idea of the character of the soil and the time 
required for the various operations, the following will 
serve: Fall of hammer, 5 ft.; 32 blows per min. 

10.15 a. m. Start to drive pile core. 
10.30 a. m. Pile core down 23 ft. 
10.39 a. m. Start driving another pile. 
10.46 a. m. Stop to change oak block. 
10.55 a. m. Start driving again. 

10.59 a. m. Pile core down 24 ft. 

11.03 &,. m. Pile core pulled out. 

11.031/^ a. !m. Pile driver moved ahead. 

11.16 a. m. Finished fixing deadman for pulling pile 

driver ahead. 

11.23 a. im. 'Steel shell on the core. 

11.241/^ a. m. Pile core lined up and driving begun-. 

11.25 a. m. 16th blow, 6 ft. down. 

11.27 'a. m. 84th blow, 12 ft. down. 

11.29% a. m. 160th blow, stop to line up. 

11.31^ a. m. Start again. 

11.321/^ a. m. 190th blow, stop to line up. 

11.331/4 a. m. Start again. 

11.33% a. m. 196th blow, stop to line up. 

11.341^ a. m. Start again. 

11.36% a. m. 256th blow, 18 ft. down, and will go no 
further. 

Cost of Making Piles. — ^Two men can cut down and 
trim 17 oak piles per day, each pile being 20 ft. long. Where 
the men are paid $1.75 per 10 hrs., the labor cost of mak- 
ing the piles is practically 1 ct. per lin. ft. To this must 
be added the cost of hauling and freight to the place 
where the piles are to be driven. 

Cost of Driving Piles With a Horse Driver.— This 
work consisted in driving 219 piles, 2 ft. centers, to form 
the protecting toe of a slope-wall. The hammer weighed 
2,000 lbs., and' was raised with 'block and taekle by horses. 
Two teams were used alternately. As soon as the ham- 
mer was tripped, two men pulled back the hammer rope 



470 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

hand over hand, and hooked it on to the second team while 
the other team was returning. In this way the blows 
were delivered almost twice as rapidly as when one team 
only is used. The driver was supported on wooden rollers 
sheathed with iron and provided with sockets into which 
hars could be inserted for turning the rollers. The rollers 
rested on planks laid on the ground which was compara- 
tively level and required no staying or grading to secure a 
level runway for the driver. Pine piles, 15 ft. long, were 
driven in a stiff clay to a depth of 13 ft. 

The average number of piles driven per 10-hr. day was 
21, but the best day's record was 30. The cost was as 
follows per day: 

5 laborers, at $1.50 $7.50 

1 foreman, who worked 2.50 

2 teams and drivers, at $3.00 6.00 

Rent of driver 2.00 

Total, for 21 piles, at 85 cts $18.00 

The piles cost 10 cts. per ft. delivered; and the con- 
tract price was 24 cts. per ft. delivered and driven. 

On another contract where piles were spaced 10 ft. cen- 
ters, and driven 12 ft. into gravel along the sloping bank 
of a river, it was necessary to do more or less grading and 
blocking up to secure a level runway for the pile driver. 
Four men and a pair of horses averaged only 6 piles per 
10-hr. day, making the cost about $1.50 per pile for the 
labor of driving. This gang was too small, and worked de- 
liberately. 

Cost of Driving Foundation Piles for a Building.— 

On this work, which consisted in driving long piles for 
the foundation of a building in Jersey City, a pile driver 
mounted on rollers was used. The leaders were 60 ft. long, 
and provided with two head sheaves, one for the hammer 
rope and one for the rope used in hauling and raising the 
piles. The hammer weighed 2,100 lbs.; and the engine was 
a double-drum friction-'clutch. The piles were of spruce 
50 ft. long, and were driven their full length in soft clay. 
For the first 10 ft. the piles were driven without ringing 
or banding. When the pile head reached the bottom of 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWOBE. 471 

the leaders, a short wooden follower was used for the last 
10 to 25 blows. The pile ring was then pulled off the pile by 
a short iron pevee lifted by the pile rope. The piles were 
stacked up in the street about 100 ft. away from the 
driver, and were "snaked over," when wanted; the pile 
rope being used for the purpose. For the first few blows 
the hammer had a fall of only 5 ft, and about 25 blows 
per min. were delivered. But after that the fall of the 
hammer was 12 ft, and about 18 blows per min. were de- 
livered. It required about 110 blows to drive a pile its 
full 50 ft. The time required to drive one pile was as 
follows: 

Minutes. 

Hooking on dragging pile to driver 5 

Hoisting pile and getting it in place 2 

Hammering pile 6 

Putting ring on pile 1 

Placing follower on pile % 

Removing follower from pile 1 

Removing ring from pile % 

Shifting pile driver 2 ft 1 

Total time per pile 17 

It will he ohserved that the hammer was actually en- 
gaged in hammering not much more than one-third of the 
total time. When everything was working smoothly 35 
piles were driven in 10 hrs., but the output frequently fell 
below 30 piles in a day, due to sundry slight delays and 
accidents. 

The cost of operating the driver was as follows: 

1 engineman $3.00 

1 man up the ladder 1.50 

4 men handling and guiding pile 6.00 

1 man sharpening piles 1.50 

1 foreman handling pile rope, etc 4.00 

% ton coal, at $6 2.00 

Total per day for labor and fuel.. $18.00 

Rent of pile driver 3.00 

Total, at 60 to 70 cts. per pile $21.00 



472 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of Driving Piles for 'Wagon Road Trestles. —It 

was necessary to drive piles for a number of wagon road 
trestle® across iravines, which were loiften (separated by 
several miles. A light pile driver that could readily be 
moved from place to place was 'built. This pile driver 
contained all told about 600 ft. B. M. of timber. The ham- 
mer weighed 1,200 lbs. and was raised by a I'-in. rope pass- 
ing over a pulley at the top of the leaders and down around 
a wooden drum 12 ins. in diameter. This drum was pro- 
vided with a wooden bull-wheel, built of 2-in. plank, and 
was 5 ft. in diameter. A rope around this bull-wheel was 
pulled by a single horse in raising the hammer. This de- 
sign was simpler, cheaper and more effective than using 
triple blocks and tackle. The leaders of the pile driver 
were of 4 x 6-in. pine, 30 ft. long. The ladder was of 2 x 
4-in. pine. The side braces were of 4 x 4-in. stuff, and the 
bed frame of 6 x 6-in. stuff. This driver, including the 5-ft. 
bull-wheel and the 1-ft. drum, was built iby 4 men in two 
days, at a cost of $16 for labor, and $8 for timber and 
bolts. 

Piles were driven in bents of three piles each, bents 20 
ft. apart. In fairly hard ground the piles were driven only 
5 or 6 ft. deep. Due to the irregularity of the ground, it 
was generally necessary to throw up a rough staging to 
support the driver while driving. The crew consisted of 
4 men and 1 horse. It would take them about 2 days to 
move the driver 4 miles over poor roads, and erect a staging 
upon which to drive a seven-bent trestle. Then they would 
average 10 piles driven per 10-hr. day. The cost of actual 
driving was about $1 per pile, wages being $10 a day for 
the crew; to which must be added another $1 per pile 
for lost time moving driver from one trestle to the next 
and building staging. 

Cedar piles were largely used for this work, as the driv- 
ing was light, and as the durability of cedar is greater 
than other woods. After driving the piles, 2 men would 
saw off the heads of 18 piles in 3 hrs., at 6 cts. per pile. 
These piles averaged 20 ft. in length, and with axmen at 
$2 a day each, they were cut down and trimmed for 25 cts. 
a pile, and hauled 3 miles over rough roads fOT 50 cts. more 
per pile. 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWOBK. 473 

I found it economic to sublet the pile driving to a re- 
liable carpenter who would work with his gang of three 
men, and earn good wages for himself and crew if paid 
$2 for driving each pile, including all moving and build- 
ing of staging. The work just described was done in this 
way. Work handled thus generally insures activity on 
the part of small gangs of men and reduces the charges 
for superintendence to a very small percentage. 

Cost of Driving Piles for a Trestle, N. P. Ry. — Mr. 

E. H. Beckler gives the following data on driving piles for 
a railway trestle and three truss bridges on the N. P. Ry., 
at Duluth, Minn., by contract in 1884. The work was all 
done in the winter, and about 2,340 piles were driven, of 
which 460 were in foundations. The trestle was 5,000 ft. 
long. A pile driver, having leaders 65 ft. long, and a 
2,600-lb. hammer, was used. The piles were of Norway 
and white pine, the average length being 51 ft. From 50 
to 150 blows were struck on each pile. With a 20-ft. fall 
the hammer struck 7 blows per min. The penetration 
was 10 to 42 ft. The average cut-off was 5 ft. for the 
trestle piles. The pile driver engine was mounted on the 
driver platform to give stability and for ease of moving. 
A 900-lb. follower was used in driving some of the piles, 
but it was found to reduce the peretration of each blow 
about 20%, and it did not save the heads of the piles from 
more or less shattering. 

Some piles were driven butt down, but it added 25% to 
the cost of driving; and it was believed that the small 
end, being exposed, would decay faster than the butt end. 
Moreover, the area of the small end was so small that the 
pile would not stand heavy driving without shattering. 

The cost of operating one pile driver was about $38 a 
day and from Dec. 11 to Mar. 5 the record of its work was 
as follows: 

Per pile. 

202 piles (32 ft. long), 19.2 piles per day $2.25 

134 piles (44 ft. long), 23.3 piles per day 1.65 

364 piles (60 ft. long), 25.1 piles per day 1.50 

379 piles (66 ft. long), 19.2 piles per day 1.95 

73 piles (65 ft. long), 22.5 piles per day 1.85 

These costs represent the cost to the contractor. 



474 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

As many as 30 piles a day for 4 consecutive days were 
driven. The average cost of driving these 1,152 piles, it 
will be seen, was nearly $1.75 per pile. 

The driving was done after the ice had formed in the 
bay, and the pile driver was supported by the ice during 
driving. 

The soil was 7 ft. of clay under which was sand. Before 
the work was begun, test piles were driven from a scow 
along the line of the trestle 300 ft. apart. This enabled 
the engineers to make out an accurate bill of pile timber 
for the work. 

It was found that Norway pine piles stood the driving 
in cold weather (as low as — 15° F.) much better than 
white pine; for, when wood freezes, it is brittle. 

The test piles were nearly all broken off several feet 
below the ground level, by the side thrust of the ice that 
formed to a thickness of 4 ft. after the piles were driven. 
Three test piles were pulled up by the ice, although they 
had been driven 40 ft. into mud. The combined strength 
of four piles in a bent was required to resist the lateral 
thrust of ice pushed by the wind. The ice was unable 
to lift the piles once the trestle was finished. 

Cost of Pile Driving, O. & St. L. Ry. — Mr. A. E. 

Buchannan gives the following data of work done, Oct. 
22 to Dec. 17, 1889, on the Omaha & St. Louis Ry., by 
company labor. There were 46 days worked, the actual 
working time being 6 hrs. 52 mins. per day. The railway 
driver drove 1,267 piles in these 316 hrs. of which time 14 
hrs. were lost in lowering the leads 344 times, or 2^^ mins. 
each time. The average time to drive a pile, it will be 
seen, was 15 mins. The average depth driven was 14 ft. 
The work was on 41 different trestles, each averaging 101 
ft. long. Wages were $2.40 for engineman, $2.00 for fire- 
man, and $1.50 to $1.75 for laborers. The cost of the 46 
days' work was: 

Wages $1,684 

Fuel, etc 262 

Total, 1,267 piles, at $1.54 $1,946 

The poorest day's work was 11 piles; the best, 44 piles; 
the average, 28 piles. 



PILING, TRE8TLING, TIMBERWORK, 475 

Cost of Pile Driving, C. & E. I. Ry.-— Mr. A. S. Mark- 
ley gives the following data relative to the cost of driving 
436 piles on 16 jobs, averaging 27 piles on each job. The 
work was done in 1902 for the C. & E. I. Ry., using a self- 
propelling railway pile driver made by the Industrial 
Works, Bay City, Mich. No locomotive was required as 
the driver could run at a speed of 10 miles an hour and 
pull 5 cars on a level road. The leads were 47 ft. long;- 
the hammer, 2,900 I'bs.; the hoisting rope, 2-in.; and the 
engine 30-HP., double cylinder. The leads could be raised 
in 2 mins. The engineman received $2.50 a day; the 
fireman, $1.50; the rest of the men were laborers, except 
the foreman. The average cost of driving each pile was 
75 cts.; land each pile averaged 24 ft. long, although the 
range was from 14 to 42 ft. 

The Record for Rapid Driving on the O. & M. R. R. 

— As illustrating what can be done under favorable condi- 
tions where men are rushing their work, a record given by 
Mr. L. C. Fitch, Engineer of Maintenance-of-Way, Ohio & 
Miss. R. R., is interesting. A pile driver crew drove 28 
piles (7 bents of 4 piles each) in 3 hrs., at a cost of 30 cts. 
per pile. The piles averaged 21 ft. long and were driven 
15 ft. into the ground. 

Cost o£ a Pile Trestle. — Mr. Henry H. Carter gives the 
following costs of building a trestle across a pond 
in Massachusetts. The work was done by con- 
tract, occupying five months, beginning November, 
1883, and ending April 9, 1884. The piles were driven in 
bents of 8 piles to the bent, bents 4 ft. apart, and capped 
with 10 X lO's 35 ft. long, notched down (dapped) 2 ins. on 
each pile. On the caps were laid four lines of 8 x 10-in. 
stringers, and on these were laid the ties for a double 
track road for contractor's dump cars. This trestle was 
filled with gravel, and afterward all but the two outer 
piles in each bent were cut off 7 ft. below water and used 
as a foundation for a masonry conduit. The average 
length of the 3,750 piles driven was 37 ft, about 25% of 
the piles being over 45 ft. long. With the hammer falling 
about 12 ft., 318 of the piles penetrated less than 1 in. 
under the last blow (very hard driving) ; 950 piles pene- 



476 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

trated 1.3 to 2.7 ins. under the last blow (hard driving); 
2,016 piles penetrated 3 to 4 ins. under the last blow (me- 
dium driving); and 141 piles penetrated over 4 ins. under 
the last blow (easy driving). In general the piles were 
driven through several feet of very soft mud and 12 ft. 
into the hard bottom. The piles were driven by two float- 
ing pile drivers supported on a raft made of timbers and 
empty oil barrels. The cost of the work was as follows: 

Making pile driver: 

Foreman, 7 days, at $3.25 $22.75 

Engineman, 7 days, at $3.25 22.75 

Laborers, 15 days at $1.75 26.25 

Carpenter, 14 days, at $2.25 31.50 

Carpenter, 18 days, at $2.00 36.00 

Gins 124.00 

Floats 314.95 

Total $578.20 

The cost of building this driver if distributed over the 
3,638 piles driven, amounts to nearly 16 cts. per pile. The 
other costs were as follows: 

Loading and transporting piles: 

Foreman, 96% days, at $2.00 $192.50 

Laborers, 449 days, at $1.75 785.75 

Horse, 104% days, at $1.50 157.12 

Sleds 3.50 

Pile driving: 

Foreman, 82 days, at $3.25 266.50 

Foreman, 118i^ days, at $3.00 355.50 

Foreman, 95 days, at $2.50 237.50 

Engineman, 87 days, at $3.25 287.75 

Engineman, 1031/2 days, at $2.50 258.75 

Topman, 166 days, at $2.00 332.00 

Topman, 17 days, at $1.75 29.75 

Deckhand, 116y2 days, at $2.25 262.12 

Deckhand, 255% days, at $2.00 510.50 

Deckhand, 280 days, at $1.75 490.00 

Laborer, 20 days, at $1.00 20.00 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 477 

Carpenter, 177 days, at $2.25 $398.25 

Carpenter, 172 days, at $2.00 344.00 

Freight on pile drivers 75.00 

Coal, 35 tons, at $6.40 224.00 

Interest on plant, 180 days, at $1.50 270.00 

11 M spruce braces, at $14 154.00 

872 lbs. spikes in braces, at 3 cts 26.16 

Tools 120.00 

Piles: 
3,638 spruce piles (a v. 37 ft. each), at $2.26 8,221.88 



$14,022.53 

The loading and transporting of the 3,638 piles cost $0.32 
per pile. The driving cost $1.30 per pile, the average num- 
ber of piles driven being 20 per day. The cost of each 
pile averaged $2.26. The total cost of each pile driven was 
$4.04 including cost of making scow, interest on driver, 
labor, fuel and cost of pile. The interest on the driver, 
$1.50 a day, is too low an estimate under ordinary condi- 
tions. 

The cost of the materials and labor for caps, stringers 
and ties (there were no sway braces) was as follows: 
Transporting timber: 

Foreman, 19 days, at $2.00 $38.00 

Laborer, 89 days, at $1.75 '. 155.75 

Laborer, 4 days, at $1.50 6.00 

Horse, 20 days, at $1.50 30.00 

•Sled 1.50 

Total $231.25 

Labor on caps and stringers: 

Foreman, 16 days, at $3.25 $52.00 

Foreman, 20 days, at $2.50 50.00 

Oarpenter, 60 days, at $2.25 135.00 

Carpenter, 58 days, at $2.00 116.00 

Caps and stringers: 

159 M spruce, at $16.10 $2,559.90 

12 M spruce bolsters, at $13.50 162.00 

3.6 M spruce plank, at $14.00 50.40 



478 . HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

10,490 lbs. bolts, at 2% cts $283.23 

3,830 lbs. bolts, at 3 cts 114.90 

88 lbs. spikes, at 3 cts 2.64 

Building derricks 5.00 

Tools 28.50 

Total for caps and stringers $3,559.57 

The cost of transporting timbers to the trestle ($231.25) 
applies not only to the 175 M of caps and stringers, but 
also to 24 M of ties and 27 M of sheet piling and wales, 
making the cost of transporting practically $1 per M. The 
other labor involved in placing the caps and stringers 
($353) after delivery, is equivalent to $2 per M, making 
a total of $3 per M for the labor on the caps and stringers. 
The cost of placing the ties was as follows: 

Placing ties: 

Laborer, 4% days, at $1.00 $4.50 

Laborer, 6 days, at $1.50 9.00 

Laborer, 51% days, at $2.00 103.50 

Ties: 

24.18 M spruce ties, at $14 338.52 

540 lbs. spikes, at 3 cts 16.20 

Total $471.72 

From this it appears that the cost of placing ties was 
nearly $5 per M (or 21.3 cts. per tie) to which must be 
added $1 per M for loading and transporting. 

The cost of sheet piling was as follows: 

Sheet piling: 

25.5 M sheet piling, at $18.60 , . .$474.30 

1.2 M spruce wales, at $16.00 19.20 

205 lbs. spikes, at 3 cts 6.15 

Interest on pile driver, 16 days, at $1.40 22.40 

3 tons coal, at $6.40 19.20 

Foreman, 16 days, at $3.25 52.00 

Engineman, 16 days, at $3.25 52.00 

Topman, 16 days, at $2.00 32.00 

Deckhand, 16 days, at $2.00 32.00 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 479 

Deckhand, 40% days, at $1.75 $71.31 

Carpenter, 32 days, at $2.00 64.00 

Total $844.56 

The cost of driving the 25.5 M and placing the 1.2 M was 
nearly $13 per M. This sheet piling was 4-ih. tongued 
and grooved, driven for two culverts. 

The cost of sawing, dapping (notched 2 ins.) and fitting 
280 caps for 280 pile bents of 6 piles to the bent was as 
follows: Cost to saw off piles, and fit caps, $2.95 per 
cap, or $2 per M (for each cap was 10 x 10 ins. x 18 ft.). 
The piles were sawed off at the bottom of a wet trench, 
and it cost 90 cts. per bent to saw away the earth. Car- 
penters received $2.50, laborers $1.25, and foreman $3.50 
a day. The gang consisted of 1 foreman, 3 laborers land 4 
carpenters. 

These caps were covered with a platform of 4-in. spruce 
plank run lengthwise of the trench, laid to break joint, and 
spiked to the caps with 8-in. cut spikes. This platform 
was laid with a force of 1 foreman, at $3.50; 8 laborers, at 
$1.50, and 1 carpenter, at $2.50. The cost of laying 900 M 
was $7.40 per M. The contractor doing this work failed. 
Cost of a Pile Docking. — ^^This work consisted in driv- 
ing a row of oak piles, 25 ft. long and 5 ft. centers, to 
an average depth of 10 ft. into gravel. The piles were 
sheeted on the rear with 3-in. oak plank laid horizontally 
and breaking Joints. A waling piece, of 10 x 12-in. oak, 
was bolted along the front face of this docking, and an- 
chored back to stone deadmen. The anchor rods were 
1%-in., spaced 10 ft. apart. Back of this docking an earth 
fill was placed, but the following costs relate only to the 
timber work. A pile driver, mounted on rollers, and oper- 
ated by a friction-clutch engine, was used. The daily cost 
of operation was as follows: 

7 men, at $1.50 $10.50 

1 foreman 3.00 

1 pair of horses 1.50 

Rent of driver and engine 3.00 

% ton coal, at $4 1.00 

Total, 10 piles driven, at $1.90 $19.00 



480 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The piles were of oak and two of the men peeled and 
pointed them and square-sawed the heads. The horses 
were used to drag the piles up to the driver. There was 
some grading and scaffolding work necessary to provide 
a level runway for the driver. The foreman was not a good 
manager, and the cost was much higher than it should 
have been. On one day when the work was pushed and 
when conditions were favorable, 25 piles were driven. 

The labor cost of placing the sheet planking and wale 
piece was $4.50 per M, about 80% of the timber being the 
3-in. planking. This work was done by common laborers 
working in pairs, at $1.50 each per 10-hr. day. The piles 
were not always plumb and seldom spaced exactly, so 
that a measuring pole had to be used to fit each plank, 
and every plank had to be sawed separately by the men. 
Had the engineer so designed the work that the planks 
could have been set on end, like sheet piling, all this fitting 
and sawing of individual planks could have been avoided, 
with consequent reduction in the cost. Moreover there 
would have been less wastage of plank. Such a design 
would have necessitated two more small-sized wale pieces, 
but it would have made easy the removal of any single 
plank at any time for repairs due to rotting. In boring the 
oak wale pieces and piles with a 1%-in. ship auger, a man 
would bore 12 ins. in 5 mlns. It took 5 mins. for two 
men to cut off a 10 x 12-in. oak stick using a cross-cut saw. 

It may be well to note that the plans called for the driv- 
ing of 3 X 8-in. oak sheet piling to a depth of 5 ft. by hand, 
using wooden mauls. It was found impossible to drive 
these planks more than 2 ft. into the gravel without bat- 
tering the heads to pieces. 

Data on Driving Plnmb and Batter Piles, New York 
Docks. — Mr. Charles W. Raymond gives the following data 
on the driving of piles for docks, Hudson River, New 
York City, prior to 1880: Piles were driven with a scow 
pile driver, the scow being 3 x 20 x 42 ft, provided with 
leaders 50 ft. long. The engine was a 10-HP. friction- 
clutch hoisting engine, with double cylinders, 6 x 12 ins. 
The boiler was 15 HP., upright. A crew of 8 men worked 
8 hrs. per day for the city, and drove 10 to 15 piles per 
day. The piles averaged about 65 ft. long, and were driven 



PILING, TRE^TLINO, TIMBERWORK. 481 

55 to 60 ft. below mean low water, penetrating about 10 
ft. of gravel and cobbles (6-in. and less) that were filled 
in over the dredged area before driving. Then the piles 
penetrated about 25 ft. of river muck, making a total 
penetration of 35 ft. There was no difficulty in driving 
throug?h the cobbles and gravel without (hrotoming the 
piles. All piles were sharpened, and their heads were 
squared. To indicate the kind of driving, two records of 
50 piles show that 230 blows of the hammer were required 
to secure a penetration of 38 ft., or 180 blows to secure a 
penetration of 33 ft. The last foot of penetration required 
13 to 14 blows of a 3,000-Ib. hammer falling 8 ft. (not free- 
ly, but with the liammer rope). 

A special driver, with leaders inclined 1 to 6, was used 
to drive batter piles, and the average number of piles 
driven per day was about half as many as in driving plumb 
piles, or 5 to 7 piles per 8-hr. day. The number of blows 
per batter pile was somewhat greater than per plumb pile, 
but by no means enough greater to account for the slower 
driving, which was probably due to difficulty in getting the 
batter pile properly started. 

Data on Driving Piles for Docks^ New York. — Mr. 
Eugene Lentilhon states that in 1896 the following com- 
parative records were made with a drop hammer and a 
Vul.can steam ham_mer: The driving was for a dock on 
the Hudson River, New York City, and was very hard 
driving, the material being 10 ft. of cobbles underlaid by 
sand and gravel. The piles were spaced 3 ft. apart, and 
driven from scows. The drop-hammer, friction-dutch ma- 
chine had a crew of 10 men. It required 175 blows of a 
3,300-lb. hammer falling 10 ft. to drive a pile; and 15 blows 
were struck per minute, hence the actual time of hammer- 
ing a pile was about 12 mins. The piles were 55 to 60 
ft. long and penetrated 21 to 28 ft. The crew averaged 12 
piles per 10-hr. day. 

As compared with this a crew of 8 men, using a Vulcan 
steam hammer, averaged 18 piles per 10 hrs. The machine 
weighed 8,400 lbs., and the striking piston weighed 4,000 
lbs. and had a drop of 3% ft. It struck 60 blows per min- 
ute, and some piles required as many as 1,200 blows. Mr. 
Lentilhon does not make it clear why the steam hammer 



482 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

was more effective than the drop hammer. It is probable, 
however, that there were fewer delays in straightening 
up the pile during driving when a steam hammer was used. 
He states that there were two objections to the steam ham- 
mer, one of which was the frequent loss of the *'cap" or 
"saucepan," or "hood," by dropping into the water, and 
the rapidity with which the "cap" was worn out. Only 
38 piles were driven with each cap before it was worn 
out. The second objection was the impracticability of driv- 
ing crooked piles. 

Cost of Driving and Sawing Off Piles.— Mr. Eugene 
Lentilhon, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. B., Vol. 31 (1894), p. 569, 
describes the construction of a concrete sewer on a pile 
foundation, built by the New York City Dock Dept. The 
piles were driven by a scow driver with a 3,400-lb. ham- 
mer, which worked 65 days. Wages were $2.30 for labor- 
ers, $3.50 for engineman, and $3.00 for dock-builders, per 
10 hrs. The averag^e was 8 piles driven per day, at a cost 
of $3.90 for labor of driving. The piles were sawed off 
1 ft. below mean low water. The dock builders fastened 
small battens on opposite sides of a pile to guide the saw, 
and frequently two men during a good low tide sawed off 
3 piles. The cost of sawing off was $1.28 per pile. 

Data on Driving With a Steam Hammer and Sawing 
Off Piles. — Mr. Sanford E. Thomson gives the following 
data on driving and sawing off piles for the Oambridge 
Bridge, at Boston, in 1901. A Warrington steam hammer, 
made by the Vulcan Iron Works, of Chicago, was used by 
the contractors. It weighed 9,800 lbs., and the striking 
part weighed 5,000 lbs. With 90 to 100 lbs. of steam, the 
hammer would strike 60 to 70 blows per minute, falling 
by gravity. The top of the leaders of the scow driver 
was 75 ft. above the water surface. After a pile was well 
down, an oak follower, 14 ins, square and 30 ft. long, was 
placed on the pile to complete the driving, so that the 
pile head was left 18 ft. below the water surface. The 
average 10-hrs. work of a driver was 100 piles, but on one 
day as many as 212 piles were driven in 9 hrs. The piles 
were 40 ft. long and driven in hard clay. 

The piles were cut off 15 to 34 ft. below low water by a 
rotary saw mounted on another scow. A 40-HP. engine 



PILING, TRE8TLING, TIMBERWORK, 483 

running at 150 revolutions per minute was geared up to 
the saw shaft so as to drive the saw at about 450 revolu- 
tions per minute. A 42-in. saw was mounted at the lower 
end of a hollow vertical shaft 4 ins. in diameter and 60 
ft. long. This shaft was supported by three pillow-block 
bearings which were bolted to a spud 14 ins. square and 
60 ft. long; so that when the spud was raised or lowered 
the saw shaft moved with it. The pulley on the saw shaft 
was arranged to slide on a spline or key, so that the shaft 
could be raised without raising the pulley. The belt from 
the pulley ran to another pulley mounted on a short ver- 
tical jack-shaft, provided with a bevel gear wheel mesh- 
ing with another bevel gear wheel on a horizontal shaft 
driven by the engine. This horizontal shaft was geared 
to the engine with a link belt. This machine sawed off 
600 to 800 piles per 10-hr. day. The spruce piles were 10 
ins. diameter. 

€ost of Driving Piles for a Swing Bridge. — A steel 
highway swing bridge, 240 ft. long, and 16-ft. roadway, 
was to be supported on a pier in the center of the river. 
The piles were Washington fir, driven to an average depth 
of '20 ft. in gravel. The penetration under the last blow 
of a 2,400-lb. hammer, falling freely 27 ft., was 3 to 4 ins. 
A scow pile driver was used, and the force to operate it 
was as follows: 

Per day. 

1 engineman $3.00 

1 man tripping hammer 1.75 

2 men guiding pile 3.50 

2 men making ready the next pile 3.50 

^ foreman 2.50 

% ton coial, at $9 3.00 

Total per 10 hrs $15.25 

Rent of driver 6.00 

Total $21.25 

This force averaged 26 piles per 10-hr. day. The fore- 
man supervised another gang of men, so that half his 
wages were charged to this work. The piles were neither 



4S4 BMDBOOK OF COST DAfA. 

peeled nor sharpened, for I found no economy in so doing. 
There were 42 piles in the pier, and twice as many more 
in the pier protection bents upstream and downstream, 
which also served as falsework upon which to build the 
bridge. The piles in these bents were sawed off, capped 
and sheeted with plank. Two men with a cross-cut saw 
would saw off 30 of the piles in the bents in 10 hrs., at 
about 12 cts. per pile. The cost of sawing off the piles 
below water for the pier is given in the next paragraph. 

Cost of Sawing Off 42 Piles Under Water.— It was 
necessary to cut off 42 piles, 4 ft. below extreme low water 
for the pier work just described. A gravel bar occupied 
the site of the pier, and, although the water was about 
4 ft. deep over the bar at the time of pile driving, it was 
necessary to dredge this bar at least 4 ft. deeper. A hole 
4 ft. deep, and 27 ft. square on a side, was dredged with an 
ordinary drag scraper equipped with long handles and 
hauled by the pile-driver engine. The men operating the 
scraper walked on a raft. It took 3% days of the pile 
driver crew, above given, to do this dredging, at $21 per 
day, or $74. The 42 piles were driven in this hole, after 
driving 4 piles above the hole and sheeting them with 
plank to act as a temporary sheer dam to prevent the river 
current (3 miles per hr.) from filling in -the hole with 
gravel during pile driving. The 42 piles were cut off about 
8 ft. under water with a circular saw mounted on a shaft 
driven by the pile-driver engine. A saw, shaft, pulleys and 
belt were bought for this purpose and rigged up by the 
pile-driver crew. It took them 3 days to rig the saw and 
cut off the 42 piles. The hole had not been dredged deep 
enough and the gravel that had washed in dulled the 
teeth of the saw requiring frequent raising to resharpen it. 
Moreover, the engine did not have sufficient power to 
drive the saw at high speed, and the piles were as much 
chewed off as sawed off. All these, however, are condi- 
tions apt to be met in similar work on small jobs. The 
3 days' sawing cost $64, or $1.50 per pile. 

Data on Sawing Off Burlington Bridge Pier Piles. 
— Mr. C. Hudson gives the following description of the 
method used in sawing off several hundred piles for the 
Burlington Bridge pier, in 1868: 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 485 

The piles when driven, were sawed off by machinery. 
On each side of the pier, and a few feet away from it, a 
row of piles, perhaps 6 or 8 ft. apart, was driven. These 
were capped, and upon the cap was placed a traveler 12 
ft. wide, arranged to be moved from end to end of the 
pier on these caps. Upon this traveler was another and 
smaller one, arranged to run upon it and across the pier. 
This last traveler carried a vertical shaft in a properly 
'braced frame. This shaft carried at its lower end a cir- 
cular saw about 36 ins. in diameter. The shaft could be 
raised or lowered as required, and was driven by means 
of a beveled gear from a horizontal shaft on the little 
traveler. A long belt extended the whole length of the 
large traveler, around a pulley on this horizontal shaft 
and another guide pulley, so arranged that the shaft was 
turned regardless of the position of the little traveler. An 
engine on a boat alongside the pier was the motive power. 

The little traveler was fed across the pier by means of 
a set of small blocks on each side, and a line which ran 
around a wheel shaft like a ship's steering wheel. By 
this means the traveler could be moved either way, and 
could thus cut off a row of piles running one way, and 
then, by feeding back cut the next row, the large traveler 
having been moved back to reach it. In this way 12 or 
15 piles were cut off per hour. The efficiency of the saw 
under water is, of course, very much less than in the air. 

Cost of Pulling Piles. — In Engineering News, April 
16, 1903, were described and illustrated two types of ma- 
chines that I have used for pulling piles from the bed of 
a river. Several hundred piles were pulled with a tripod 
machine, with gear wheels and triple blocks that multi- 
plied the power 270 times. A rope passed from the drum 
of the machine to a 4-HP. hoisting engine, which was thus 
able to pull piles driven 27 ft. into the ground. It cost 
$100 to make two of these machines and about $300 more 
for blocks and tackle and repairs. 

The crew for each puller was 3 laborers, 1 boss and 1 
engineman, so that the cost of wages and i/4 ton of coal 
was $10 per day. About 700 piles were pulled with two 
machines, the average depth of pile being 12 ft., although 
many were 25 ft. The average day's work per machine 



486 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

was 15 piles making the cost of labor and fuel about 70 
ots. per pile. The men worked in water up to their knees 
and were provided with rubber boots costing $100, which, 
with the $400 paid for machines and repairs, made $500, 
or about 70 cts. more per pile. 

Chains that were wrapped around the piles in pulling 
were made of Hi-in. iron, with a breaking strength of about 
100,000 lbs. The strain was so great in pulling the longest 
piles that the chains were frequently broken. 

Cost of Blasting Files. — Several hundred piles were 
removed by blasting, in addition to the 700 that were pulled 
as above described. The piles had been cut off at the 
water's surface many years before, and our contract re- 
quired the removal of the piles at least 4 ft. below the 
surface of the low water, which was equivalent to about 
2 ft. below the bed of the river. Long ship augers were 
used to bore holes 1% ins. in diameter and 4% ft. deep, 
down the core each pile. Each laborer averaged 7 such 
holes bored per 10 hrs. in white oak piles. The cost per 
pile for boring and blasting was: 

Labor boring, 15 cts. per hr $0.21 

1 lb. of 70% dynamite 0.20 

% lb. of 40% dynamite 0.08 

5 ft. of fuse 0.03 

1 cap 0.01 

Total per pile $0.53 

Each pile was loaded with two sticks of 70% dynamite 
and one stick of 40%. This charge would cut off the largest 
pile and hurl the butt 75 ft. in the air. 0€casionally a 
very tough pile would be splintered, and had to be pulled. 
This added cost of pulling averaged 10 cts. more per pile, 
which might have been avoided by making all three sticks 
70% dynamite. 

Cost of Pulling and Driving Piles for a Guard Pier. 

— ^The pile protection, or guard pier, of an old draw bridge, 
across a tributary of the Hudson River, was removed and 
new piles were driven. The author sublet the work, and 
the following are the actual costs to the subcontractor: 
The number of piles pulled was 200, and the time re- 



PILING, TRE8TLING, TIMBERWORK. 487 

quired was 10 days. A scow pile driver was used, the 
engine being a friction-clutch machine, and the hammer 
weighing 2,200 lbs. To pull the piles, a pair of heavy 
triple-sheave blocks were used. The pulling was easy, the 
piles being only 10 to 15 ft. In rather soft ground. The 
daily (10-hr.) cost of operating the scow was as follows: 

Per day. 

1 captain of driver $2.50 

1 engineman 2.00 

3 men, at $1.80 5.40 

% ton coal, at $3 1.00 

Rent of driver 5.00 

Total, 20 piles pulled, at 80 cts $15.90 

This same crew then drove 200 new piles in 20 days, or 
10 piles per day, at a cost of $1.60 per pile. The piles were 
driven 15 to 20 ft., and were 30 to 35 ft. long after cutting 
off. The slowness of the driving was largely due to de- 
lays caused by navigation at high tide, the channel being 
so narrow that the driver had to drop down with the tide 
to make way for boats to pass, and then pull back against 
the tide. On some days the driver was interrupted in 
this way as many as 8 times. 

After the piles were driven and cut off, a 6 x 12-in. wale 
piece was bolted om each side of the piles, entirely around 
the guard pier, the wale piece being 1 ft. below the top of 
the piles. Another (but single) wale piece was bolted to 
the piles, on the outside, at low water. To these wale 
pieces, 3 x 12-in. sheeting planks were spiked upright; 
and two more lines of 6 x 12-in. walings were bolted through 
the sheeting and inside wale pieces, to hold the sheeting 
in place. The 1-in. bolts were countersunk. The timber 
for the wale pieces was yellow pine in 16-ft. lengths, and 
had to be scarfed with a 12-in. ship lap on each end, and 
drift bolted twice. This scarfing was expensive work, ibe- 
side causing a 6% loss of timber at the scarfs. If longer 
lengths than 16 ft. had been used, the cost of labor and 
the waste of timber would have been less. Beside the wale 
pieces and sheeting, there were 6 x 12-in. timbers bolted 
on each side of every fifth bent of piles; and the center 
piles of the bent were capped, lengthwise of the guard 



488 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

pier, with a 12 x 12-in. cap. There were nearly 30,000 ft. 
B. M. of yellow pine timber all told, which cost $23 per 
M deliyered. 

For this timherwork the same crew was used as for pile 
pulling and driving, except that one more timberman, at 
$1.80, was employed, making the daily cost $17.70. The 
crew averaged only 1,300 ft. B. M,. per day, at a cost of 
nearly $14 per M for framing and placing all the timber. 
They were slow workers, and there were delays due to 
navigation. 

Measurement of Timberwork. — ^Timber is sold by 
the 1,000 ft. B. M. (thousand feet board measure). A com- 
mon abbreviation for 1,000 ft. B. M. is the letter M. One 
foQt board measure Is 12 ins. square and 1 in. thick, which 
is 1-12 cu. ft. To estimate the number of feet board meas- 
ure in a sawed istick, multiply the end dimensions (in 
inches) together and divide by twelve, then multiply this 
quotient by the length of the stick (in feet). For ex- 
ample, in a 10 X 12-in. stick, 16 ft. long, there are: 

10 X 12 
X 16 =- 160 ft. B. M. 



12 

Timberwork is paid for at a specified price per M for 
the timber measured in the work. The contractor must be 
cautious to make allowance for wastage in Sraming the 
timber. Scarf joints, for example, may cause a wastage 
of 6%. If bridge flooring planks are laid diagonally for a 
16-ft. roadway, there is a wastage of about 5% when the 
ends are sawed off on line with the outer stringers. 

Timber is usually sold in lengths containing an even 
number of feet, as 10, 12, 14, 16 ft. In examining plans, the 
contractor should be careful to note whether the dimen- 
sions are such as to require the use of even lengths or not, 
for a careless engineer or architect may so design a struc- 
ture as to cause a large wastage of timber. 

In measuring dressed lum^ber, remember that the thick- 
ness used in calculating the number of board feet is not 
the actual thickness of the dressed board, but the thick- 
ness of the original stock from v/hich the dressed board 
was made. So also the width of a tongue and grooved 



PILING, TRE8TLIXG, TIMBERWORK. 4S9 

board is not its actual face width, as laid, but it is the 
width of the original board. 

Cost of Manufacturing Lumber. — A contractor will 
often find it profitable to cut and saw lumber. A 20-HP. 
portable engine will run a small saw mill, and with a 
crew of 5 men the output will be about 8,000 ft. B. M. of 
3-in. plank per day. If the wages of the 5 men are $10 
a day, and the rental of the engine and saw is $10 more per 
day, the cost of sawing is about $2.50 per M. The price 
of the timber as it stands before cutting, is called the 
stumpage price, and this ranges from $1 to $5 per M. The 
cost of cutting and skidding hemlock logs, I have found 
to be about $1 per M, half of which is for cutting and the 
other half for skidding, wages being $1.50 a day. The total 
cost of sawed plank in one case was as follows: 

Per M. 

Stumpage $1.50 

Cutting 0.40 

iSkidding 0.60 

Sawing 2.50 

Total per M $5.00 

Cost of Creosoting.— In *'The Polytechnic," March 31, 
1905, Mr. O. T. Dunn gives the following data: Creosoting 
costs $15 to $20 per M. Assuming that two 6-ft. cylinders 
100 ft. long are used, the capacity of each cylinder is 16,- 
800 ift. B. M. The total plant will cost, say, $80,000. If 
the timjbers are to be impregnated with 20 lbs. of creosote 
per cu. ft, it will take about 36 hrs. for a run, and the 
annual capacity of the plant will be nearly 7,000 M. If the 
interest and depreciation of the plant is assumed at 10% 
we have $8,000 -^ 7,000 = $1.14 per M chargeable to this 
item. The labor will cost about $3.75 per M. If the oil 
costs 8 cts. per gal., a.nd 20 lbs. be used per cu. ft, the 
cost of the oil is $15.33 per M. This makes a total of $20.22 
per M. If 16 lbs. of oil per cu. ft are used, the cost of oil 
is $10.26 per M, thus reducing the total cost by $5. If 
the plant is not worked to its full capacity, the interest 
charge per M becomes greater. 

Treated with 20 lbs. of oil per cu ft., piles in the bridge 
of the L. & N. R. R., over the mouths of the Pascagoula 



490 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

River, have been in the structure 28 years, and will be 
good for many years to come. These piles are subject to 
attacks of the teredo (Novalis), where uncreosoted piles 
iy2 ft. in diameter have been cut off by the teredo in a 
single year. 

Beech ties impregnated with 12 lbs. of oil per cu. ft. 
have lasted 30 years on the Eastern Railway of France. 

The specific gravity of creosote is 1.1, or about 10% greater 
than water. 

Cost of Loading and Hanling Timber. — One man, as- 
sisted by the driver of a team, will load 1 M of 2-in. plank 
onto a wagon in about 16 mins. These same two men will 
unload in 12 mins. With wages at 15 cts. per hr. per man, 
the cost of loading is 8 cts. per M, and unloading is 6 cts. 
per M. On short hauls, where the team is idle during the 
loading and unloading, it is necessary to add 7 cts. more 
per M for lost team time, if the two horses are worth 15 
cts. per hr. This makes a total of 21 cts. per M for loading 
and unloading a wagon, including lost team time. Green 
timber weighs from 3 lbs. to 5 lbs. per ft. B. M., depend- 
ing upon the kind. Assuming 4 lbs., as an average illustra- 
tion, we see that 1 M weighs 2 tons, which is a good load 
for hard earth roads in first-class condition. If the wages 
of a team and driver are 30 cts. per hr., and the load is 
1 M, and the speed going and coming is 2% miles per hr., 
the cost of hauling is nearly 25 cts. per M per mile meas- 
ured one way from loading point to unloading point. On 
muddy earth roads, 1 ton, or % M is often a good load; 
then the cost of hauling is nearly 50 cts. per M per mile. I 
have known earth roads to be so bad that hauling cost 
75 cts. per M^per mile. 

Sawing, Boring and Adzing.— In heavy timberwork 
the cost of framing consists mainly in sawing, boring and 
adzing the sticks. Where a large number of sticks are to 
be sawed to the same length it generally pays to install a 
small power saw; hut on jobs of moderate size the cus- 
tomary practice Is to frame the timbers with a cross-cut 
saw operated by two men. Using a sharp saw aud work- 
ing rapidly two men can cross-cut a 12 x 12-in. oak stick 
in 3 mins., but it is generally safer to allow 5 mins. to 
cover delays. 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 491 

When a timber is to be notched, or scarfed, a cross-cut 
saw is used to cut to the bottom of the scarf, then a 
hatchet or adz is used to cut away the wood roughly, and 
an adz is used to dress the face. I have seen poor fore- 
men permit workmen to use chisels instead of adzes, thus 
"making the job last/' 

A "dap*' is a shallow notch cut in a stick. 

Mortise and tenon joints are no longer used by those 
who know how to design economic and durable timber 
structures. Dowel pins and drift-bolts have largely replaced 
the old mortise and tenon. 

In boring holes for bolts, there are three methods com- 
monly used: (1) Boring by hand with ship augers; (2) 
boring vertical or inclined holes of moderate depth with 
hand-power boring machines; and (3) boring with augers 
operated by compressed air. 

A man with a ship auger will bore a 1%-in. hole in oak, 
12 ins. deep in 5 mins. Using a geared boring machine, a 
man will bore a 1-in. hole 12 ins. deep in 2 mins., by hand. 
With a pneumatic auger a man will bore a 1-in. hole Zy^ ft. 
deep, in yellow pine chord members of a trestle, in 5 mins. 
of actual boring time, but 2 mins. more must be added for 
cleaning the shavings out of the hole, and moving to the 
next hole, making 7 mins. in all for 3% ft, or 2 mins. per 
ft. This is the most economic method of boring where 
much work is to be done. For cost of operating pneumatic 
machines, see section on Bridges and Painting. 

Mr. W. E. Smith states that in building an ore dock 
three pneumatic boring machines were used. The air was 
supplied by two 9-in. Westinghouse locomotive air pumps, 
through 1,200 ft. of 1%-in. pipe in one direction of the 
dock and through 1,000 ft. of 1%-in. pipe in another direc- 
tion to the framing yard. For air receivers there were 
one locomotive air reservoir on the dock and one in the 
framing yard. The air pumps had to work so fast to sup- 
ply air that a stream of water had to be kept running 
over their valves to keep them cool. It would require a 
20-HP. boiler to supply steam for one of the air pumps 
working at such a speed. While these air pumps use a 
good deal of steam, they are very convenient, for they 
are light, easily moved and can be bolted up anywhere to 



492 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

a wall or post. The pneumatic borers were run with a 
pressure of 60 to 90 lbs., and gave great satisfaction. 

Methods and Cost of Building a Kailway Trestle. 

— A trestle on the Indiana, Illinois & Iowa R. R., near 
Streator, 111., was destroyed by a tornado in July, 1903. 
The right-of-way was quickly 'cleared by a large gang of 
trackmen and a new trestle built, using about half of the 
old timber, all of which had to be framed over again as 
the bents were made of different heights. The new trestle 
was 854 ft. long, consisting of 60 bents spaced 14 ft. center 
to center. Of these bents 43 were double-deck bents, the 
upper bents being 20% ft. high, and the lower bents aver- 
aging 21 ft. The remaining bents were single-deck. The 
force averaged 70 bridgemen (carpenters) and 190 track- 
men (laborers), and a few teams. This force cleared away 
the wreckage, and built the new trestle complete in 7 days, 
not including 1% days spent in getting men to the site of 
the work. There were 351,000 ft. B. M. in the new trestle, 
including ties, and the cost of clearing the site and build- 
ing the trestle was $11.85 per M for labor of bridgemen, 
trackmen and a few teams. The wages were probably 
about $1.50 per 10-hr. day for trackmen, and $2.50 for 
bridgemen. The new timber cost $27 per M. 

"The mortise and tenon is a back number" on railway 
trestle work, so the principal tools used were the two-man 
cross-cut saw, the adz, and the ship auger. The sills were 
dapped %-in., and the ends of the posts were framed to 
11% ins. square, ensuring a perfect joint. 

The posts were sawed off square, dapped into the cap 
and driftbolted, and toenailed to the sill with eight %-in. 
X 10-in. boatspikes in each post. 

A peg was driven and numbered to mark the center of 
each bent, and small stakes were set on each side to mark 
the location of the plumb legs and batter posts. The 
ground was then dug to a level surface around each of 
the four pegs, but no particular care was taken to dig the 
ground to the same level at all four pegs. Differences in 
level were made up by using blocks for cribbing under the 
sills. These blocks were leveled on top by digging earth 
out from under them where necessary, which did away 
with adzing or shimming the sill. The blocks under each 



PILING, TRE8TLING, TIMBERWORK, 4^3 

T)ent consisted of eight pieces 4 ft. long, two blocks under 
each post, giving a ground bearing of about 45 sq. ft. per 
bent. 

When a foundation of blocking and the lower sill were 
in place, the posts and cap for a bent were dragged by- 
teams to the site of the bent and rolled over into position 
just ahead of the foundation. The sill was rolled over 
on its side; the plumb posts were butted against the 
dapped places and toenailed, being centered from the grad- 
ing pegs. The batter posts were laid near their proper 
places (but not toenailed), and the cap was drift bolted to 
all four posts, holes having already been bored in the cap. 
The cap and sill were held tight to the plumb post with 
chains and with "right and left screw-pulling jacks." Then 
the batter posts were crowded in at the bottom and toe- 
nailed to the sill. The bent being assembled, one sash 
-brace and two sway braces were spiked across the upper 
face of the bent as it lay blocked up a few feet above the 
ground. Four %-in. x 8-in. boat spikes were used at each 
intersection. The bent was then ready to be raised. A 
set of double tackle blocks was made fast at each end of 
the cap and anchored to the cap of the preceding bent 
which had already been erected and securely braced. The 
pulling ropes ran through snatch blocks fastened to 
the sill of this preceding bent, and a team was hitched 
to each of the two pulling ropes. The team up-ended the 
bent easily. A subbing rope around the cap, and anchored 
to any convenient anchorage, prevented the bent from 
going too far and tipping over. And two temporary struts 
from the sill of the preceding bent to the sill of the bent 
that was being raised, prevented the bent from sliding 
while being raised. When erected, the bent was pinched 
over so as to be centered on the alinement stake; then 
plumbed and tied to the preceding bent with sash braces 
and sway braces. The bents were plumbed by eye, or by 
lining the posts up with a plumb line string held at arm's 
length. It was necessary to plumb the bent from both 
sides. A small gang followed the erectors, putting on the 
remaining sash braces, sway braces, tower braces and A- 
braces. 

Teams were used for hoisting the framed timbers for 



494 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

the top series of bents, from the ground to the top of the 
lower series of bents, where they were assembled and 
erected practically as above described. Tb hoist the tim- 
bers for the top series of bents, a gin-pole was erected. 
The gin-pole was 40 ft. high, and consisted of two 3 x 12-in. 
pieces, 28 ft. long, with another piece spiked between them 
so as to give a total length of 40 ft. This gin-pole was 
securely chained to one of the lower bents. At first a 
series of snatch blocks was used in hoisting the timbers, 
but this proved too severe on the teams and double blocks 
were used to multiply the power. 

The 8 X 16-in. stringers were run out on the trestle on 
dollies pushed along run planks. They required but little 
framing. The ends were cut off so that the joint came 
over the middle of the cap, and the end of any stringer 
more than 15% ins. deep was adzed off to that size, to give 
an even bearing for the ties. The stringers were then 
turned over flatwise, and piled three deep (breaking joint) 
and bored. Then they were lifted apart and 2-in. cast 
iron packing washers slipped in between, and the bolts 
were entered and tightened. Sections of stringers 200 to 
300 ft. long were bolted together, and then turned over 
into position. To turn a section over, a stout lever, 10 
ft. long, was chained to one end of the section. A set of 
double blocks and tackle fastened to the end of this lever 
quickly turned the section over. 

In boring the holes through the stringers each man 
averaged 80 ft. of holes bored per day, that is 40 holes 
2 ft. long. 

The ties were hoisted from the ground by teams, using 
gin-poles. 

The foregoing description has been prepared from data 
given by Mr. W. R. Sanborn. 

Cost of a Timber Viaduct. — Mr. S. D. Mason gives the 
following data relating to a high timber viaduct on the 
N. P. R. R. in the Rocky Mts., near Missoula. The via- 
duct contained 1,000 M of Norway pine, 75% of which was 
sawed by contract and the rest hewed. The saw mill was 
put up near the work and all the timber was framed at the 
mill. The viaduct was 866 ft. long, and 227 ft. high for a 
distance of about 150 ft. at the center. It consisted of 



PILING, TRE.^TLING, TIMBERWORK. 495 

8 timber towers supporting 7 Howe truss spans of 50 ft. 
each. On each side of these were M bents supporting 
straining beams of 30 ft. span each. The timbers were 
erected by 2 to 4 gangs cf 16 men each, a stick at a time. 
The heaviest stick weighed 1,700 lbs. Both horse and 
steam power were used for hoisting. The chords of the 
Howe trusses consisted of two 6 x 12's and one 8 x 12. 
They were placed and the diagonal braces put in, beginning 
at the center, the chords being temporarily held by 
struts and guy lines. It was found impracticable to raise 
the trusses bodily. Fir angle blocks were used, but their 
subsequent shrinkage led finally to the building of new 
Howe trusses. Work was begun Jan. 1, 1882, and com- 
pleted in 171 days. Laborers and carpenters received ex- 
cedingly high wages, $6 to $7.50 a day, which accounts for 
the high cost of $37 per M for framing and erecting. At 
ordinary wages the labor would have cost about $12 per 
M. The erecting gangs struck for $10 a day when within 
30 ft. of the top, and their wages were raised, but it is 
not stated how much. The following was the cost of the 
viaduct: 

869 M, at $27 $23,463 

101 M, at $16 1,616 

87,120 lbs. wrought iron, at 5% cts 5,010 

29,940 lbs. cast iron, at 3^/4 cts 973 

117,060 lbs. hauled 80 miles, at 2% cts 3,220 

Wages of carpenters and laborers 36,336 

Salaries of engineers 3,137 

Traveling, office and sundry expenses 1,007 

Supplies for men 2,860 

Blocks, ropes, chains and wrenches 1,300 

40 horses, 90 days, at $1 3,600 

Hay and oats for same 2,700 

Rent of land and land damages 400 

Total, at $88.27 per M $85,622 

Cost o£ Building an Approach to a Bridge. — Mr. B 

L. Crosby gives the following cost data on the building oi 
a timber trestle approach, 2,960 ft. long, to a double track 
bridge across the Missouri River, in 1893. The trestle was 



4%' HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

built by company men. In the trestle there were 1,438 M 
of yellow pine, 35,220 ft. of piles, and 97,552 lbs. of iron 
(70 lbs. per M of timber). The cost of unloading, handling 
and driving piles, including all material and labor (except 
the cost of the piles themselves) was 13.7 cts. per lin. ft. 
The cost of unloading, framing and erecting timber, was 
$7.42 per M. 

Cost of Building a Trestle and a Bridge Under 
Traffic. — An old railway trestle was rebuilt under a traflBlc 
averaging one train per hour. The trestle was 300 ft. 
long and 50 ft. high at the center. The labor of rebuilding 
this trestle cost $9.90 per M, including taking down and 
piling up the old trestle timbers. There were 5 men and 
a working foreman in the gang; 2 men at $2 a day each, 3 
men at $1.75, and 1 foreman at $60 a month. 

This same gang built a Howe truss railway bridge under 
traffic at a cost of $28 per M for labor. The cost of fram- 
ing and placing 30 M of oak ties and guard rails on three 
bridges was $12 per M. 

Cost of Wagon Road Trestles.— ^The author's records 
show the following costs of building a dozen or more 
trestles in the State of Washington. The trestles were for 
highway use, and had a 3-in. plank floor, 16 ft. wide, rest- 
ing on 7 lines of 4 x 14-in. stringers. Bents were spaced 
20 ft. apart, three 10 x 10-ln. posts to a bent dapped into 
and doweled to caps and sills. Sills were of hewed cedar 
10 X 15 ins. Caps wore 10 x 12 ins. x 18 ft. Sway braces 
were of 3 x 6-in. stuff spiked to the posts and sill. The 
supports for the hand rail consisted of 4 x 4-in. poists, 4% 
ft. long, spaced 10 ft. apart and bolted to the outer stringers 
which in turn were drift bolted to the caps. The top or 
hand rail was of 3 x 4-in. stuff, and the hub rail was 2x8 
ins. There was no mortise and tenon work, and the framing 
was of the simplest type. The bents were framed flat on 
the ground and up-ended to place by using blocks and 
tackle operated by hand power. The flooring and stringers 
were conveyed to place by dollies. The work was done by 
subcontractors with few carpenters, and in all eases was 
handled with excellent judgment and with rapidity. To 
frame and erect a trestle 60 ft. long, consisting of two 
bents and two bank sills, required 4 men only 1% days. 



PILING, TRESTLING, TiMBERWORK. 497 

This trestle contained 7 M, of which 5 M were in the floor 
system (floor and stringers). Three of the gang were 
laborers, at $1.50, and one was a carpenter, at $2.50, making 
the daily wages $7 for the gang, so that the cost of build- 
ing this trestle was only $1.50 per M. This cost was dis- 
tributed as follows: $4 per M for framing and erecting 
the bents and the hand railing; 50 cts. per M for laying 
the stringers and the floor plank. This laying of stringers 
and plank, where there is nothing to do but to deliver them 
on dollies, toenail the stringers to the caps, and spike the 
floor plank to the stringers, can be done very cheaply by 
common laborers skilled enough to drive nails. 

It is not necessairy to notch the stringers in order to 
secure alinement of the tops of the stringers for the plank 
floor, because in such timberwork perfection of alinement 
causes a needless waste of labor. 

A gang of 3 laborers, on another trestle, laid a floor 
system containing 15 M of plank and stringers in 1% days, 
at a cost of 50 ots. per M. 

On another trestle 260 ft. long, it took 4 men 3 days to 
lay 23 M of stringers and plank in the floor system, at a 
cost of nearly $1 per M. These men were much slower. 

On another piece of road work, where we used round 
timber for the posts and sills, a gang of 9 men and a 
team cut and delivered all the necessary timber from the 
forest, erected and sway braced the bents of three trestles, 
having a total length of 440 ft., in 12 days. There were 
7 framed bents, 12 pile bents (36 piles 20 ft. long, driven 
5 ft.), and 6 mud sills in these 3 trestles. The piles were 
driven with a small horse power pile driver. <Seven of 
these men were laborers, two were carpenters and bosses. 
The timber in the bents was not accurately measured to 
determine the number of board feet, but the approximate 
cost, including the piles, was less than $16 per M for the 
hents. I consider this an excellent record, and one not to 
be equalled except under the best foremanship and with 
•willing, intelligent laborers. 

Cost of 160-ft. Span Howe Truss Bridges.— In 1894 
the author designed, and built by contract, two highway 
bridges over different points on the Noaksack River, Wash- 



498 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

ington. Each bridge had a 16-ft. roadway, a clear span 
of 160 ft., and a depth of truss of 30 ft. at the center. The 
bridge was designed to carry 100 lbs. per sq. ft. of road- 
way. The trusses were a modified type of Howe truss, 
having upper chords that were not horizontal but sloped 
up from both end posts to an apex at the center, like a 
roo'f truss. This design very materially reduced the amount 
of iron, which was an important factor. Each chord was 
made of three parallel timhers, each 6 x 14 Ins., bolted to- 
gether. Panels were 20 ft. long. The floor was of 3-in. 
cedar plank, for lightness and durability. The rest of 
the timber was Washington fir. The bridges rested on pile 
ahutments, which were protected by log cribs filled with 
field-stones. Each bridge contained 40 M of timber, of 
which 23 M were in the trusses and braces, and 17 M in 
the fioor system. No piles were driven for falsework, al- 
though the river was 4 to 6 ft. deep and swift; but two- 
post bents were put up just back of each panel point. 
These bents were made of round timber, and were erected 
by first dropping into the water pairs of long-legged saw 
horses on each side of the proposed falsework, and laying 
run planks on the horses for men to walk on. A false- 
work can thus be built with great rapidity and cheaply, 
and in spite of the weight coming upon the posts of each 
bent the settlement in the gravel bottom was very slight, 
and easily taken up by wedges under the lower chords. 
There is always danger, however, that a sudden flood will 
undermine the falsework, and this happened at one of 
the bridges, causing it to fall during construction. No 
rpper falsework, except a light staging at each end post and 
at the center, is needed with this type of truss, provided 
long sticks of timber can be secured; for with chord 
sticks 62 ft. long (in a bridge of this size) It is possible to 
lift, flrst one end, then the other, of the upper chord sticksi 
and support them upon the light staging at each end, until 
the diagonal struts are placed. 

The trusses must be first framed and bolted together, 
flatwise on the ground, then unbolted and erected piece 
by piece. The timbers were pushed out onto the false- 
work on dollies, and lifted with block and tackle, using 
a gin-pole where necessary; all this handling being by 



PILING, TRE8TLING, TIMBERWORK. 499- 

band without a hoisting engine. Although the following 
record of low cost will he hard to equal, it serves to show 
what can be done with efficient labor under a good bridge 
foreman. 

Cost of 160-ft. Span Bridge. 

Materials : 

40 M timber, at $7 on cars $280.00 

40 M timber hauled 3 miles, at $250 100.00 

3,970 lbs. iron rods; 662 lbs. bolts; 769 lbs. gib 
plates; 326 lbs. drift bolts; total 5,727 

lbs., at 3% cts 186.10 

14 cast iron angle blocks, 1,316 lbs., at 2% cts.. 36.20 

613 cast iron washers, 613 lbs., at 2i^ cts 15.30 

Lag screws, nails, etc 9.90 

Freight on iron 14.50 

Total bridge materials delivered $642.00 

30 abutment piles, 30 ft. long, at 5 cts. per ft 45.00 

Labor: 

Framing trusses, 6 carpenters 7 days, at $2.50.. $105.00 
Getting out timber for falsework and building 

driver 40.00 

Driving 30 piles, 6 men and 2 teams, 9 days. . . . 150.00 

Building two log cribs 75.00 

Erecting lower falsework, 8 men, 3 days 48.00 

Erecting bridge, 4 carpenters and 6 laborers, 7 

days 133.00 

Laying floor and handrails, 4 carpenters and 4 

laborers, 1 day 16.00 

Loading, hauling and placing 70 cu. yds. of 

field-stones in cribs (%-mile haul) 70.00 

Total $637.00 

Foreman, at $4 per day 160.00 



Grand total labor on bridge and abutments.. $797.00 



.500 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Summary: 

Bridge materials delivered $642.00 

Piles delivered 45.00 

Labor 637.00 

Foremanship 160.00 

Tools, ropes, etc. (one-half charged to each 

ibridge) 100.00 



Total cost of one bridge and abutments, .$1,584.00 

Deducting the cost of material and labor on the two pile 
abutments and their cribs, we have left, $1,200 as the cost 
of one bridge alone. 

If we analyze the labor we find that the wages of the 
foreman amounted to 20% of the total labor expenditure. 
This is a high percentage, but one often exceeded on small 
works of this character where delays due to bad weather 
or lack of materials, add up very rapidly when the fore- 
man is paid by the month for handling a small gang of 
men. 

It will be seen that the carpenter work of framing the 
23 M (exclusive of the floor) cost $4.50 per M, to which 
should be added about $1.00 per M for foreman. E'recting 
the bridge (exclusive ot 17 M of floor) cost $133 after the 
falsework was built, or nearly $6 per M (4 erectors being 
carpenters, at $2.50, and 6 laborers, at $1.50), to which 
should be added $1.50 per M for foreman. This makes a 
total of $10.50 per M for framln-g and erecting the 23 M 
in the bridge trusses, to which must be added $2.50 per 
M for foreman, and $2 more per M for erecting falsework, 
if we distribute the labor cost of erecting the falsework 
over the 23 M. The falsework cost must be estimated for 
every bridge separately. In this case it was unusually 
cheap. 

The cost of placing the 17 M of flooring on the bridge 
was less than $1 per M, for there was practically no saw- 
ing, adzing or boring to be done — simply running the 
timber out to place on dollies, and spiking it. This seems 
an exceedingly low cost, but similar records will be found 
on page 497. Perhaps no better example will be found in 
this book to show the necessity of separating plain timber- 



PILING, TRE^TLING, TIMBERWORK, 501 

work from framed timberwork in analyzing timberwork 
costs. 

The cost of the pile driving was high per pile not only 
because the driving was very hard, but because of the 
small number of piles in each abutment, and because of 
the cost of moving across the river and erecting staging 
for the driver to rest upon at each abutment. 

The cribs around the piles were made of hewn timber 
taken from the forest near by. Each crib averaged 6 ft. 
high, 10 ft. wide, and 30 ft, long, containing about 6 M 
of timber. The cost of cutting this timber, hewing and 
erecting it, was $6 per M, wages of men being $2.50 a day. 
To this about $1.50 per M should be added for foreman. 

A third crib, built for another bridge abutment, was 
10 ft. high, 12 ft. wide, and 35 ft. long, containing about 
12 M of hewed timber. It took 5 men 4 days, at $2.50, to 
cut the timber for and build this crib, which is equivalent 
to about $4 per M, and to this $1 per M should be added 
for foreman. 

Cost of a Wooden Reservoir Roof on Iron Posts. — 

A reservoir at Pasadena, Cal., was roofed over in 1899, at 
a remarkably low cost. I am indebted to Mr. T. D. Allin 
for the following data: The extreme dimensions of the 
reservoir were 330 x 540 ft, and 166,000 sq. ft. were roofed. 
The roof was supported by 551 iron posts made of 2-in. 
water pipe, capped at the bottom and set in cement. On 
the top of each of these posts a wooden corbel, 6x6 ins. 
X 2% ft., was fastened by boring a hole 4 ins. deep in the 
corbel and driving the pipe into the hole. Each post, about 
20 ft. long, was up-ended by hand, after the corbel had 
been driven on, plumbed and temporarily stay-lathed. Posts 
were spaced 15% and 18 ft. apart. On the posts were laid 
floor beams made of two 2 x 10-in. plank, overlapped at 
the ends and spiked together, forming a continuous beam 
4 X 10 ins. A gang of 7 men, using movable scaffolding for 
placing and spiking these floor beams, averaged 1,500 ft. 
of floor beams per day. On these beams were laid 2 x 
8-in. stringers, 16 ft. long. The stringers were overlapped 
4 ins. and spiked, and were spaced 6 ft. centers. On the 
stringers were laid 1 x 12-in. planks, forming the roof. 
These planks were cut to 12-ft., 18-ft. and 24-ft. lengths, 



502 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

the planks being laid in forms so as to facilitate accurate 
cutting without individual measurement of each plank. 
Similar forms were used for cutting the planks used in the 
floor-beams. The stringers did not require accurate cut- 
ting. All the timber was rough, merchantable Oregon pine. 
The cost of this roof, covering 166,000 sq. ft., was as fol- 
io w^s: 

260 M Oregon pine, at $18.70 $4,862 

9,373 ft. of 2-in. pipe 987 

Nails and ' spikes 203 

Millwork on 551 corbels 27 

Cement for footings 6 

Engineering 151 

Labor, including superintendence 1,004 

Total, 166,000 sq. ft., at 4.36 cts $7,240 

It will be noted that the labor cost about $4 per M. Mr. 
Allin informs me that about 75% of the work was done by- 
laborers and 25% by carpenters. The laborers received 
$1.75 for 9 hrs., and the carpenters, $2.50 for 9 hrs. The 
work was done during hard times and quite a number of 
the laborers were really carpenters. Carpenters were used 
on the erection work and on work around the sides of the 
structure where neatness was required. 

More recently Mr. Allin has completed covering three more 
reservoirs in a similar manner, the only change in design 
being the spacing of joists 4 ft. apart instead of 6 ft. He 
believes that the extra expense is justified because there 
is less warping of the boards. Wages are now (1905) $4 
per 8 hrs. for carpenters, and $2 for laborers, and prices 
of materials are higher, so that it costs 6 cts. per sq. ft. to 
cover a reservoir. 

Cost of a Crib Dam. — Mr. J. W. Woermann gives the 
following cost data for two crib dams across the north 
and the south channels of Rock River, at the head of Carr's 
Island, near Milan, 111., built in 1894. The north dam is 598 
ft. long; the south dam, 764 ft. long. The two dams are 
connected by a levee 1,000 ft. long. The dams are on a 
rock foundation, and designed to withstand a head of 4% 
ft. The dam is a crib of 6 x 8-in. pine timbers, with a rock 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 503 

filling. The main part of the dam is 13i^ ft. wide, with an 
apron 6i^ ft. wide, making a total base of 20 ft. A filling 
of clay and quarry refuse is placed against the cribwork 
on the up-stream side. The main dam and the apron are 
covered with 4-in. oak plank, and the up-stream face of 
the dam with two rows of 2-in. pine sheet-piling. Friom 
the crest of the dam to the apron the fall is 3 ft. 

An area below the north abutment was stripped for a 
quarry (June, 1894), and the 800 cu. yds. of stripping, to- 
gether with 300 cu. yds. of riprap, were used for coffer- 
dams for the north dam. The coffer-dams were made as 
follows: Cribs, 16 ft. square, were built in line, spaced 
14 ft. apart. The cribs were built in shallow water by 
boring holes in the ends of each timber and dropping the 
timbers over long upright bolts at each corner of the crib. 
The top of these cribs was sheeted with 4-in. oak plank 
and weighted down with bags of sand. Timbers, 6 x 8-in., 
the ends of which were supported by adjacent cribs, were 
then shoved down into the water. This furnished a cof- 
fer-dam 130 ft. long, and riprap and quarry stripping 
dumped against the face of the dam could not be washed 
away. The 4-in. oak plank was then removed and used 
in the permanent work. Subsequently the riprap, which 
was placed on the down-stream side of the cribs, was re- 
moved and used in the dam. The quarry stripping was 
placed on the up-stream side of the cribs. The areas en- 
closed by coffer *dams, were 50 to 200 ft. long, and were 
kept dry with hand pumps. The water in the river was 
BO shallow that wagons were used to deliver all the ma- 
terials used in both coffer-dams and main dams. 

The carpenter work on the south dam was begun Aug. 
7 and finished Aug. 22, working 8 hrs. a day, including 
Sundays. For this dam about 75% of the rock was quar- 
ried from the river bed without requiring explosives. 
During the construction of the coffer-dam for the south 
dam the force was 14 teams and 50 laborers (for a few rush 
days there were 130 laborers), and they were engaged from 
July 24 to Aug. 4. During the erection of the cribwork 
for the main dam (16 days) the force was 16 carpenters 
and 50 laborers, about one-third of the laborers assisting 
the carpenters in carrying timbers, boring, driving bolts 
and spikes. The number of teams was the same through- 
out the work. 



504 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The total amount of timber in both dams was 330,190 ft. 
B. M., distributed thus: 

Feet B. M. . 

North Dam. South Dam. 

Longitudinal timbers (pine) 47,230 73,550 

Transverse timbers (pine) 28,350 46,950 

Sheet piling timbers (pine) 7,950 14,610 

Plank in coping (oak) 33,540 42,840 

Plank in apron (oak) 15,870 19,300 

Total 132,940 197,250 

The cost of the labor of putting this timber into the dams 
was $5.80 per M. 

The rock filling in the north dam is 1,240 cu. yds.; in 
the south dam, 2,350 cu. yds. The iron used was: 

North Dam. South Dam. 

Anchor bolts, lbs 1,010 320 

Drift bolts, lbs 6,050 9,610 

Boat spikes, lbs 4,750 6,050 

Wire nails, lbs 300 400 

Total, lbs 12,110 16,380 

The cost of labor on the two dams was: 

North Dam. South Dam, 

Hauling materials $284 

Building coffer-dams f730 1,055 

Preparing foundation 493 818 

Carpenter work on dams 949 965 

Quarrying rock, filling cribs and grading 

above dams 1,966 1,971 

Engineering, watching and miscellaneous 362 402 

Total $4,500 $5,495 

This makes the total cost of labor $9,995 on the two 
dams. The total cost was as follows: 

Labor $9,995 

Rent of land 217 

111 M oak 2,919 

218 M pine 3,087 

28,490 lbs. iron 805 

Explosires 151 

Total $17,174 

Cost of Two Small Scows. — For use in river work, two 
small scows were built as shown in Fig. 28. Each scow 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 



505 



was 2 ft. deep, 6 ft. wide, and 32 ft long. It consisted of 
four parallel frames made by spiking 2 x 6-in. hemlock 
to form rough trusses. These frames were 2 ft. apart,- and to 
them rough hemlock sheeting plank was spiked, making deck 
bottom, sides and ends of a closed box. All the joints, except 
the deck, were calked with oakum and tarred. Thus very 
cheap and watertight scows were made. They were strong 
enough to be used for a floating pile driver, by bolting the 




FIG. 28. 

two scows side by side; but they were not quite large 
enough for this purpose and the leaders of the pile driver 
had to be held with guy ropes, which was a great nuisance. 
Nevertheless, this rough and light construction proved good 
enough in every other respect for river work where no 
logs or other heavy Objects could Jbatter the scows. The 
cost of these two scows was as follows: 

3 M rough hemlock, at $11 $33.00 

15 lbs. oakum, and necessary pitch 1.50 

1 keg nails 2.00 

12 days' labor, at $2 24.00 



Total for two scows $60.50 

This is equivalent to $30 each for the scows. One car- 
penter, at $2.50, assisted by one laborer, at $1.50, did the 
work, which cost $8 per M. During the winter the scows 
were hauled out of the water, and next spring re-calked 
with 8 lbs. of oakum, requiring the labor of one man for 
14 hrs. Each scow was readily loaded on a wagon for 
transportation. 

Cost of a Flume. — Mr. William H. Hall, in Trans. Am. 
Soc. C. E., Vol. 33 (1895), describes and illustrates very 
fully the work on the Santa Ana Canal of the Bear Val- 



506 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

ley Irrigation Co., in San Bernardino County, California. 
Wooden stave pipe and a semicircular stave flume, in- 
vented by Mr. Hall, were largely used, and cost data are 
given. The flume is 5^^ ft. in diameter, semicircular, made 
of dressed redwood staves 1% ins. thick held by binding 
rods or hoops (2 ft. 8 ins. apart) passing through 4 x 4-in. 
wooden cross-yokes. The flume rests on sills or bolsters 
(10 ft. apart) cut to fit its curved bottom, and these sills 
are supported on concrete blocks or on wooden trestles 
according to the locality. A gang of ten labiorers and five 
carpenters and a foreman built the flume. Not a nail was 
used in its construction. Wages were high, being 
$2 a day for laborers, $3 a day for carpenters, 
and $4 a day for team and driver. The cost of 
erecting the flume, exclusive of trestle work, was 
$5.75 per M, but this does mot include shop work, delivery 
and calking. The cost of delivering the lumber in wagons 
was $2.50 per M and subdelivering it on dollies was $2.50 
per M more, as the work was in a rough country; hauling 
costing 37% cts. per ton mile by contract. The cost of mak- 
ing the sills, and yokes, and dipping all the lumber in coal 
tar, and calking after erection, came to $3.25 per M, in- 
cluding all timber in the flume, exclusive of trestles. Hence 
the total labor cost, including delivery and subdelivery, 
was $14 per M. The lumber was bought for $28 per M. 

The cost of framing and erecting timber trestles to sup- 
port this flume was $13 per M, the rough pine itself costing 
$19 per M; the cost of delivering it is not given, but was 
presumably $5 per M. The work was half over before the 
m*en became trained to their work, and at no time were 
they very active or efficient. 

The total amount of dressed redwood for the flume staves 
was 312 M, which required 214,000 lbs. of wrought and cast 
iron for bands, bolts, etc., or about 700 lbs. per 1,000 ft. 
B. M. This iron cost 5% cts. per lb. At these high prices 
the cost of the finished flume was about $5 per lin. ft., of 
which $2.50 was for the flume alone and $2.50 for the trestle 
supporting it. 

Cost of a Coffer-dam and Aqueduct. — In 1840, on the 
Erie Canal, when skilled laborers were paid $1 per day of 
11 hrs. worked (and stone cutters received $2.25 a day — 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 507 

carpenters* wages not stated), a coffer-dam (built by con- 
tract) containing 157,500 ft. B. M. of timber and plank was 
built with 830 days of skilled labor and a few carpenters. 
This is equivalent to 190 ft. B. M. per man per day. 

In building (by contract) an aqueduct trunk or flume, 
supported by masonry arches, the timber gang consisted of 
2 carpenters to every 1 skilled laborer. There were put 
in 892,400 ft. B. M. of timber, of which 260,300 ft. B. M. 
were framed. This required 3,153 days of carpenters and 
laborers. The average day's work for each man was: 

Framing 648 ft. B. M. 

Putting in the work 324 ft. B. M. 

Cost of Four Caissons. — Mr. B. L. Crosby gives the 
following on the construction of four piers for a double- 
track bridge across the Missouri River, for the St. Louis 
extension of the St. L., K. & N. W. R. R. The foundation 
work was done by company labor. The masonry piers were 
founded on pneumatic caissons, each 30 x 70 ft. outside 
measure, excepting one w'hich was 24 x 60 ft. The caissons 
'were 16 ft. high, including the iron cutting edge, and sur- 
mounted with a timber cribwork. This cribwork was 24 
ft., 45 ft., 58 ft. and 64 ft. high respectively on the four 
•piers. All the caissons, except one, were built on launching 
ways on the north side of the river, just above the bridge 
line. These launching ways were constructed by driving 
piles, which were capped by 12 x 12-in. timbers running 
up and down stream, and then the 12 x 12-in. way timbers 
were drift-bolted to the caps. The ways had a slope of 3 
ins. to the foot toward the river, and extended far enough 
out to allow the caisson to float before being clear of the 
timbers. Piles were cut off under water with a circular saw, 
and the drift-bolts, which had been started into the caps 
before they were sunk, were driven by a ramrod working 
through a gas-pipe over the drift-bolt. To remove a sand- 
bar at the site of one of the piers, a steamboat was anchored 
to piles over the pier site, and by the revolution of its pad- 
dle wheels washed out a hole 7 to 10 ft. deep. Barges were 
placed each side of the caisson, and heavy timbers bolted 
across the caisson, and extending out over the barges. The 
caisson was towed to its site, and when it struck a sand- 
bar, air was pumped into the caisson to raise it so as to clear 



508 HANDBOOK OF C0S7' DATA, 

the bar. In sinking the caisson a Morrison sand-pump and a 
Morrison clay-hoist were used. The greatest depth reached 
below low water was 101 ft, and laborers in the caisson re- 
ceived $3.50 a day of 2 or 3 hrs. (working 1-hr. shifts) at this 
great depth. The pneumatic plant used in sinking consisted 
of two No. 4 Clayton duplex compressors, having steam and 
air cylinders, each 14-in., with a 15-in. stroke; a Worth- 
ington duplex pump, 18^ x 10% x 10 ins., 'and a small dy- 
namo and engine. This plant was set up on the steamboat 
whose boilers furnished the power. There was also a du- 
plicate plant, which was used part of the time, supported 
on a pile platform. There were several hoisting engines, 
a pile driver boat provided with a derrick for handling tim- 
bers in building up the oribwork on the caissons. The con- 
crete used to fill the crib work was 1:2:4 Louisville cement, 
and 1:3:6 Portland cement. In these four caissons and 
cribs there were 1,609 M of yellow pine. The cost of fram- 
ing and building the caissons was $21.93 per M. This in- 
cludes cost of launching ways, and of material and labor 
of all kinds; except the cost of the timber itself. It also 
includes all handling and towing. Carpenters were paid 
$2.50 and laborers $1.75 per day. There were placed in 
these caissons .13,285 cu. yds. of concrete requiring 16,- 
035 bbls, of Louisville cement and 4,759 bbls. of Portland 
cement. The cost of this concrete (broken stone was used) 
was $5.36 per cu. yd. The average cost of caisson and concrete 
filling, including cutting edges, shafting, etc., was 34.2 cts. 
per cu. ft.; the average cost of sinking 9.17 cts. per cu. ft, 
this average being materially increased due to some rock 
excavation on one pier where the average cost of caisson 
sinking was 12.33 cts. per cu. ft. The average cost of cais- 
sons was $178 per ft. sunk, ranging from $116 per ft. on 
one to $259 per ft. on tlie one where rock was encoun- 
tered. Work on the first caisson was begun July 30, 1892, 
and it was launched Aug. 20. It reached bed rock Jan. 
2, 1893, at a depth of 89 ft. below low water. The first 
engine passed over the completed bridge Dec. 27, 1893. 

Cost of Making Bodies for Dump Cars. — Some bodies 
for bottom-dumping cars were made to be mounted on or- 
dinary hand-car trucks, and were used in filling a trestle. 
The car bodies were made hopper shape, the sides being 



PILING, TRESTLING, TIMBERWORK. 509 

4 ft. apart; the ends were 6^ ft. apart at tlie top ana 
sloping toward the center until they were 4 ft. apart at 
the bottom. The height of the body was 20 ins., thus giv- 
ing a struck-measure capacity of 33 cu. ft. Two doors, 
forming the bottom of the car, were hinged to the two 
ends of the car body with three 14-in. strap hinges to each 
door. These doors were each 18 ins. wide and 4 ft. long, 
and were closed by means of hoisting chains (i/4-ln. iron) 
passing around a 2y2-\n. gas pipe winch which spanned 
the car from side to side. This 2%-ln. gas pipe was 
stiffened by a 2% -in. pipe slipped inside. It required 150 
ft. B. M. of plank to make each car, and a carpenter (25 cts. 
per hr.) with a helper (15 cts. per hr.) averaged one car 
in 7 hrs., which is at the rate of $10 per M. 

Cost o£ Making Tool Boxes. — A carpenter made two 
tool boxes of 1-in. matched pine boards in 10 hrs. Eiach 
box contained 130 ft. B. M., so that the labor cost was a 
little less than $10 per M, wages being 25 cts. per hr. 

Cost of Plank Roads. — Very often the contractor would 
be enabled to haul much larger loads in wagons if he were 
to build plank roads up certain short steep ascents, or up 
out of the pit. The planks need not be spiked to the 
stringers. Plank for such roads should be 8 ft. long and 
8 ins. thick. Contrary to general opinion cedar makes an 
excellent plank road, for its surface soon becomes a thin 
mat of wood fibres and dirt that protect the body of the 
plank. Either three lines of 4 x 6-in. or two lines of 3 x 
12-in. cedar stringers should be bedded in the ground and 
the plank laid upon them without spiking. In the State 
of Washington the writer found the cost of building the 
very best of these plank roads to be as follows: Three 
skilled laborers bedding three lines of 4 x 6-in. stringers 
in clay, laying and spiking 3-in. plank, averaged 15,000 ft. 
B. M. per 10-hr. day. In sand these men averaged 18,000 
ft. B. M. per day. They were hustling, as they received 50 
cts. per 1,000 ft. B. M. for laying this road, plank being de- 
livered alongside. Over such a road a team can pull as 
much as on the very best asphalt pavement. The * 'trick" 
about building a good plank road is to bed the stringers, 
not leaving them on top of the ground. The road then is 



510 B Ah D BOOK OF COST DATA. 

firm and great loads can be hauled over it, so long as it 
is kept in good condition. 

Since in temporary roads the spiking may be omitted, 
and as a matter of fact it should be omitted even on per- 
manent roads, we see that the plank may be used over 
and over again for different jobs; but if the road is worth 
laying at all it is worth laying well in the first place. 



SECTION X. 
COST OF ERECTING BUILDINaS. 

Estimating Quantity of Lumber.— Lumber is meas- 
ured in feet board measure, as explained on page 487. 

There are 15 or more associations in America having 
rules governing the inspection and classification of lumber. 
In an editorial article on timber specifications, Engineering 
News, Feb. 23, 1905, p. 203, I have given the addresses of 
ten of the most Important associations, and of these ten 
the following three have printed rules that are particu- 
larly valuable to have: The National Hardwood Lumber 
Association, Chicago; iSouthern Lumber Manufacturers* 
Association, St. Louis; Mississippi Valley Lumbermen's 
Association, Minneapolis, Minn. 

In building a house, there is always a considerable per- 
centage of waste lumber. Then, too, there is the loss in 
surface area in forming tongues and grooves at the mill, 
and in dressing the edges. Therefore, after computing the 
exact number of pieces, or the exact area, as shown in the 
plans for the building, it is necessary to add 'considerably 
to the lumber bill to cover the waste. 

To estimate the number of joists for each room, count 
the actual number and add 1 joist; for an extra joist is 
needed for the wall. Joists are nearly always "bridged," 
and foT this purpose 2 x 4-in. stuff is used. The **bridg- 
ing" is the inclined bracing between the joists. 

Allow 25 lin. ft. of 2 x 4-in. bridging for each "square" 
(100 sq. ft.) of flooring. Where 2 x 12-in. joists are placed 
16 ins. apart, it will be found that the 2 x 4-in. bridging 
amounts to about 9% of the number of ft. B. M. of joists. 

On a plain roof count the number of rafters and add 1 
extra. 



512 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

In estimating the number of studs for walls and parti- 
tions, allow 1 stud for every lineal foot of wall or partition 
where s'tuds are "spaced 16 ins. centers," that is 16 ins. 
center to center. This seemingly large allowance is made 
to cover the doubling of studs on corners, doors and win- 
dows. For a stable or a shed no such extra allowance need 
be made. 

To estimate the quantity of sheeting or of sMplap, calcu- 
late the exact surface to be covered, deducting openings, 
then add the following percentages: 

Sheeting. SMplap. 

For floors ^orl5% |orl7% 

ForsidewaUs iorl7% ^ot20% 

Forroofs ^or20% |or25% 

Sheeting is laid with 2-in. spaces on cheap roofs, then 
deduct accordingly. Sheeting and shiplap are sometimes 
laid diagonally, then add 5% to the above figures to cover 
waste in sawing both ends. 

Remember that lumber comes in lengths of even feet, 
and, excepting Oregon fir, 16 ft. is the maximum stock 
length. Examine each area to be covered to see whether 
a given number of standard lengths will cover it, or 
whether there will be a waste on each length. 

To estimate the amount of siding, calculate the exact 
surface, deducting openings, and add %, or 33%, if 6-in. 
siding with 4^/^ ins. -to the weather; but if it is 4-in. siding 
add ^, or 507o, to the actual surface. 

There are two classes of flooring, namely, "dressed or 
square edge flooring," and "dressed and matched flooring." 
The square edge flooring ordinarily has a face width about 
% in. less than its nominal width; thus, a piece of 6-in. 
square edge flooring has a face width of 5^/^ ins., and a 
piece of 4-in. flooring has a face width of ZVo ins. The 
loss in the case of the flooring with 5^-in. face is 1-11; 
and in the case of the 3%-in. face, the loss is 1-7. But in 
addition to these mill losses, there is generally waste ow- 
ing to bad ends, etc., so that after estimating the exact 
area of floor, add the following percentages: 

For 6-in flooring, add ^or 11% 

For 4-ln. flooring, add | or 20% 



CG^'^T OF ERECTING BVILDiyGS. 513 

The following gives a fair extra allowance where dressed 
and matched flooring is to be laid: 

For 6-ln. flooring, add | or 17% 

ror4-in. " " i or 25% 

For2M-ln. " *♦ ^ or 38% 

ForlX-in. " " /^ or 40% 

Remember that if the flooring is to be laid under parti- 
tions, due allowance must be made. If the architect has 
so spaced the joists 'that full standard lengths can not be 
used, there may be a very large waste not included in the 
above allowances; thus, if the width of room is such as 
to require flooring 12 ft. 2 ins. long, it will be necessary to 
buy flooring 14 ft. long, and saw off nearly 2 ft., which is 
wasted. Flooring less than 1 in. thick is estimated as 
being 1 in. thick. 

Ceiling and Wainscoting are estimated just as dressed and 
matched flooring is estimated. 

Cost of Buildings per Cu. Ft. — In order approximately 
to estimate the cost of any proposed building for which 
plans have not yet been prepared, it is convenient to es- 
timate the cost in cents per cubic foot. In the following 
examples the cubic contents are computed from the cellar 
floor to the roof (if the roof is flat), or (in a pitch roof) to 
the top of the attic walls that are flnished ot may be fin- 
ished; but air spaces and open porches are not included 
Measurements are from out to out of walls and foundations. 

The following figures were compiled by Mr. James N. 
Brown, of St. Douis, and form part of the instructions to 
insurance adjusters: 

Country property: Cts. per cu. ft. 

Frame dwelling, small box house, no cornice 4 

Frame dwelling, shingle roof, small cornice, 

no sash weights, plain 5 to 6 

Brick dwelling, same class 7 to S 

Frame dwelling, shingle roof, good cornice, 

sash weights, blinds (good house) .... 7 to 8 

Brick dwelling, same class 9 to 10 

Frame barn, shingle roof, not painted, plain 

finish iVa to 21/2 

Frame barn, shingle roof, painted, good foun- 
dation 21/2 to 3 



514 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cts. per cu. ft. 
Frame store, shingle roof, painted, plain 

'finish 5 to 7 

Brick store, shingle roof, painted, good cor- 
nice, well finished 7 to 9 

Frame church or schoolhouse, ordinary 5 to 7 

Brick church or schoolhouse, ordinary 8. to 10 

If slate or metal roof, add % ct. per cu. ft. to the above. 

The following costs may serve as a rough guide for build- 
ings of their respective classes built in the Middle West: 

Cts. per 
cu. ft. 

Stores and flats 11 

Warehouse, 5 story, mill construction 7 

Office building, fine, fireproof, Chicago 30 

Office building, wood construction 20 

Library, fine, fireproof 35 

Hospital, fine, fireproof 25 

Hospital, fireproof, no partitions 15 

Hospital, wood, no partitions 7 

Hotel, fine, fireproof 50 

Hotel, ordinary 20 

Residence, fine, brick, not fireproof 20 

Residence, fine, stone, not fireproof 35 

Residence, common, brick, 9 rooms 10 

Residence, frame, without modern improvements, $350 

per room. 
Residence, frame, with modern improvements (hardwood 

and slate), $500 per room. 

Cost of R. R. Buildings per Sq. Ft.— It is often con- 
venient to estimate the cost of railroad buildings in dol- 
lars per square foot of ground covered ^y the building. 
The following costs will serve as examples for similar 
buildings in the Mississippi Valley region: 

Per sq ft. 

Station, frame, with living nooms, on piles $1.30 

Station, frame, with living rooms, stone founda- 
tion 1.50 

Station, passenger and freight, frame, on piles. . . . 1.15 
Station, passenger and freight, brick 1.80 



COST OF ERECTING BUILDINGS, 515 

Per sq. ft. 
Station, modern passenger, brick and stone, slate 

roof, ha-rdwood finish $3.50 

Lavatory, separate 1-story brick, best plumbing. . 4.00 
Store house, brick to window sill, unsheeted studs, 
covered with galv. iron, 2 stories and base- 
ment 1.25 

Store house, brick, steel and concrete, heaviest 

construction, no basement 3.75 

Machine and erecting shop, best, concrete, brick 

and steel 1.80 

Boiler shop, best, concrete, brick and steel 1.60 

Power house, best, concrete, brick and steel.... 2.75 

Blacksmith shop, best, concrete, brick and steel.. 1.30 

Car shop, best, concrete, brick and steel 1.60 

Coal and iron sheds, best, concrete, brick and steel 1.30 

Dry kiln, best, concrete, brick and steel 1.00 

Coach shop, brick to window sill, studs unsheeted, 

covered with galv. iron 0.70 

Planing mill, ditto 1.30 



Cost of Items of 

locality, if we select 
mate the percentage 



Buildings by Percentages. — In any 

buildings of any given class and esti- 
of the total cost chargeable to each 



Excavation, brick and cut 
stone 

Plaster 

Skylights and glass 

Millwork and glass 

Lumber 

Carpenter labor 

Hardware 

Tin, galv. iron and slate. 

Gravel roofing 

Structural steel 

Steel lintels andhardware 

Plumbing and gas fitting 

Piping for steam, water 
and power 

Paint 



Co ■— I 

16% 
8 

21* 

19 

18 

SK 
2H 



^.o 




•S-S 


M ^ 


SI 


•g^ 


« 


m§ 



36% 



20 

12 

10 

3 

4>^ 



5>^ 



38% 

eya 

it" 
nyz 

10 
5 

5>^ 



4>^ 



^ si 



48% 
6 

10 K 
UK 
10 

2K 






7 

18 1^ 

9.^ 



sy^ 

2 



2y, 



a . 
if 

IS 



50% 15% 



10 
6 

4 



1^ 
IK 
45>i 
6 



Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 



Note.— Heating is not included. 



516 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

item, we find a remarltably small variation. Far exam- 
ple, the hardware item in brick residences averages about 
37o of the total cost of the building whether the building 
costs $10,000 or $50,000. For a $10,000 building the hard- 
ware costs $10,000 X 3%, or $300. For a $50,000 building, 
the hardware costs $50,000 x 3%, or $1,500. In making pre- 
liminary estimates of cost it is often sufficiently close to 
estimate one or two of the large items and calculate the 
rest by percentages. Every builder and architect, there- 
fore, should analyze the actual cost of each item of a num- 
ber of typical buildings, and reduce the analysis to per- 
'centages. Where foundation work is difficult and variable, 
it is well to exclude the foundations in forming a table of 
percentages, such as the one on page 514. It is also well 
to carry the subdivisions of cost still farther; but for 
the purpose of example, the foregoing table serves to 
illustrate. 

Cost of Erecting 5 Different Kinds of Buildings.— 

In the following table is given the average cost of timber- 
work in a number of different buildings. Each building 
is briefly described in the table, and the cost is the average 
of all <the rough lumber in it, and does not include the 
work on the milled, or dressed lumber. Only carpenters 
were engaged on this work, and they handled all the 
lumber after its delivery in wagons at the site of the work. 
Wages of carpen'ters were 40 cts. per hr. No common la- 
borers employed. 

Cost per 
Ft.B. M. M., wage 
per man being 
Building per day $3.20 for 

Number. of 8 hrs. 8-lirs 

1 A block of six 3-story "flats," first story 

veneered with brick; rest covered with 

slate; an expensive front; towers 275 $11.60 

2 Same type of building with a plain front. . 375 8.50 

3 Three-story schoolhouse, plain ; including 

sheeting, shiplap, and all plain lumber 

except flooring 400 8.00 

4 Three-story business building 476 6.80 

5 Heavy warehouse, mill construction. 550 5.80 

A plain two-story building, with a 2-in. 

flooring roof, and plank under-floors. . . . 385 8.30 

Cost of Framing and Placing liumber. — ^The follow;- 
ing table gives the actual cost of the carpenter work in- 



COST OF EKECTING BUILDINGS. 517 

volved in doing the different classes of work enumerated. 
No common laborers were employed. 

Cost per 
Ft.B. M. M., wages 
per man being 
per day $3.20 lor 
of 8 hrs. 8 lirs. 
Jblsts : in a four-^tory brlcJk traslliess block, having 

steel girders, 3 x 14-in. joists delivered sized, 

average cost of work on joists and sheeting (not 

including hoisting which was $2 per M. for second 

story and up) 550 $5.80 

Joists : In a three-story, plain, electric light build- 
ing, with flat roof, 3 x 12-in. joists, including siz- 
ing of joists 400 8.00 

Joists and floor: In a warehouse, joists dropped 

into stirrups, and a heavy plank floor 

Bridging : 2 x 4-in. bridging between joists 

Sleepers : For a railroad machine shop, 6 x 8-in. 

sleepers burled in sand .^ 

Plank Floor : The 8-in. plank floor laid on the sleepers 

above described 

Purlins : For a warehouse, including hoisting 60 ft. . 
Plank floor: A 2-in. plank floor laid on purlins that 

were 6-ft. apart 

Sheeting for floors 

Sheeting for roof of six-story building 

Sheeting on frame building 

(Note. — If sheeting is laid diagonally, add 15% to 
the cost of laying.) 

Rafters : 2 x 6-ln. rafters for plain gable roof 

Rafters : 2 x 6-in. rafters for a hip roof 

Roof Boards : Rough boards on a plain gable roof 

Roof Boards ; Rough boards on a hip roof 

Siding : Rough boards on a barn 

Studding: 2 x 4-in 

Studding : 2 x 6-in 

Sills and plates : 6 x 8-in., without gains or mortices 
Sills and plates : 6 x 8-ln„ with gains but no mortices 
Sills and plates : 6 x 8-in., with gains and mortices. . 
Platform : A rough timber platform on short posts, 

around a warehouse, including posts, caps, joists 

and floor 400 8.00 

Board Fence : A close board fence, 8-ft. high (posts 

alreadyset) 400 8.00 

Cost of Laying and Smoothing Floors. — In the fol- 
lowing table is given the cost of laying matched flooring, 
after the joists are in place. All the cost of handling the 
flooring after its delivery at the building site is included. 
Where the width of the flooring plank is given, the face 
width is meant, and it should be remembered that the 
face width is about y2-in. less than the original stock width 
of the material before milling. A flooring that is sold by 
the mills as 4-in. plank, has a face width of 3% ins. The 
cost of laying is given in "squares" of 100 sq. ft. 



500 


6.40 


150 


21.30 


380 


8.40 


450 


7.10 


265 


12.10 


230 


13.90 


800 


4.00 


500 


6.40 


500 


6.40 


300 


10.70 


125 


25.60 


600 


5.35 


400 


8.00 


800 


4.00 


250 


12.80 


350 


9.15 


400 


8.00 


200 


16.00 


135 


23.70 



518 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



COST OF LAYING FLOORING. 



Yellow Pine-: 3)i-ln. face laid on sheeting, lacludlng 

the laying of paper between the sheeting and the 

flooring and Including the smoothing of rough 

joints In the flooring, in a four-story business block 
Yellow Pine: 3)^ -in. face, including smoothing and 

sandpapering, in a five-story business block, men 

worked very hard. 

Yellow Pine: 3)4-in. face, laid direct on joists, no 

smoothing 

Maple : Square edged, 4-in face, doubled nailed, not 

smoothed. In a warehouse 

Yellow Pine : 4-in. face, nailed on one edge only, not 

smoothed, in a six-story warehouse 

Yellow Pine : 3X-in. face, including smoothing and 

sandpapering, in a three-story seminary, ground 

floor 

Ditto : Small upper rooms , 

Maple : 2>^-ln. face, laid but not smoothed 

Maple : 2i^-in. face, laid but not smoothed, large floor 

of warehouse 

Maple : 2^-ln. face, laid and smoothed, houses and 

offices 

Maple: IX-in. face, laid and well smoothed, houses 

and offices 

Maple: Smoothing only, not including laying the 

floor 

Oak : Gluing, smoothing, scraping and sandpapering 

a fine floor, men working hard 

Yellow Pine: 5!^ -in. face, 2 ins. thick, tongue and 

groove, for mill building, not smoothed 

Yellow Pine : 5>^-in. face on bare joists, not smoothed 

Pitto: Laid on top of an under-floor 

Ditto : Laid on a pitched roof without many angles. . 



Cost per 
square. 
Squares wages 
per man being 
per day $8.20 per 
of 8 hrs. 8 hrs. 



$1.60 



1% 


1.80 


8 


1.10 


2>i 


1.40 


2>^ 


1.80 




2.10 
2.60 
1.60 


sya 


0.90 


1 


8.20 


X 


4.30 


1 


8.20 


K 


12.80 


2^ 

4 
8 
2 


1.30 
0.80 
1.10 
1.60 



Cost of Ceiling, Wainscoting and Siding.— The fol- 
lowing table gives the cost of ceiling, wainscoting and 
siding; 



Ceiling of a store .....*.* 

Smoothing an oak celling after laying 

Wainscoting : cut, put up and finished with cap and 

quarter round 

Siding : Plain, 6-in 

Drop-siding : When window casings and corner boards 

are placed over the siding 

Drop-siding: When joints are made against casings 

and corner boards 

Lap-siding 

Surfaced barn boards , ,,...,,., 



Squares 
per man 
per day 
of 8 hrs. 


Cost per 
square, 
wages be- 
ing $3.20 
per day. 


ly. 


' 2.10 
4.80 


1% 

23^ 


1.80 
1.40 


4 


0.80 


7 


1.30 
1.05 
0.45 



COST OF ERECTING BUILDINGS. 



519 



Cost of Shingling. — The following table gives the cost 
of laying shingles, shingles being well laid with 4i^-in. 
exposure: 



Plain roof 

Fancy roof 

Difficult roof, much cutting. 

Plain side walls 

Difficult side walls 





Cost per 


Squares 


square. 


per man 


wages be- 


per day 


ing $3.20 


of 8 hrs. 


per day 


2K 


$1.30 


IX 


1.80 


1 


3.20 


IK 


2.10 


1 


3.20 



The standard bunch of shingles is supposed to contain 
250 shingles averaging 4 ins. wide. Hence if shingles are 
laid with an exposure of 4% ins., each shingle covers 
4 X 41^ — 18 sq. ins., or 800 shingles to the square. But 
the cutting for angles, the loss of broken shingles, the 
double course at the eaves, and the like, necessitate a 
larger allowance. On plain roofs allow 8% more, and on 
gables 12% more than the theoretical 800. Estimate as 
follows : 



with 4-ln exposure. 
" 4y,-ln. •* 
•* 5-ln. 



Plain Roof. 


Cut-up Roof. 


Shingles 


Shingles 


per square. 


per square. 


990 


1010 


880 


900 


790 


810 



Cost o£ I<aying Base-Boards. — ^The amount of base- 
board work is computed in lineal feet, instead of board 
feet. The following costs relate to the actual number of 
lineal feet, doors and openings being deducted: 

Cost per 
Lin. ft. Un. ft., 

per man wages he- 
perday ipg$3.20 

of 8 hrs. per day. 

Base-bosrd ! In a bTilldlng with on unusually large 

number of pilasters 50 C^cts. 

Base-board: Three-membered, hardwood, average 

number of miters 60 6>^cls. 

Base- board: In a plain five-story business block, 

two-mem bered base scribed to floor 80 4 cts. 

Base-board In a three-story seminary, narrow birch ; 

fitting to the floor not necessary 100 8>^cts. 

Base-board : Plain, quarter-round at floor 100 8X cts. 

MDuldlng : Bed, flat, 3-in 320 let, 



520 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Cost of Placing Boors, Windows and Blinds. — The 

followmg table gives the cost of labor on doors, windows 
and blinds; 



windows! To put frames together If stuff comes 

knocked down 

Window : Ordinary pine window in a frame building, 

including setting frame 

Window : Same as before, except hardwood 

Wiudow : Ordinary pine window in brick building. 

Including setting frame 

Window : Same as before, except hardwood 

Window: 30-light (lights 10 x 14), setting frame, 

fitting and hanging sash, and putting on hardware, 

for a machine shop 

Window ; Same as before, but hung on sash balances 

Transom: Fixed 

Transom : Hung 

Door: Common hardwood, set jambs, case, hang and 

finish, including transom 

Door : Birch door, complete, for a seminary 

Door : Common pine door, l^-ln., complete 

Door : Common pine, 1%-ln., complete. . . ^ 

Door: Pine, swinging door, no hardware except 

hinges 

Door : Pine, finish of wide paneled jambs, with tran- 
som, for school house 

Door: Same as before, but hardwood 

Sliding doors : Pine (framing not included), to finish 

complete with lining, jambs, casings, and hard- 
ware, per pair 82 12.80 

Sliding doors: Same as before, but hardwood, per 

pair 48 19.20 

Outside doors: Pine, 6x8 ft., door frame, casings, 

and hardware, complete, per pair 10 4.00 

Outside doors : Same as before, but hardwood, per 

pair 14 5.60 

Outside double doors: Opening 12 x 18 ft., in a 

factory. . . 

Sliding doors : Opening 12 x 18 ft., in a barn 

Blinds : If fitted before frames are set, per pair 

Blinds : If fitted after frames are set, per pair 

Blinds: Plain pine, inside blinds, per set 

Blinds : Same as before, but hardwood 

The labor cost of bedding and setting 10 x 14-in. lights 
on a large building was li/^ cts. per light, or ll^ ots. per 
sq. ft.; and one-twenty-fifth of a pound of putty per lin- 
eal foot around the edge of the glass was used. With a 
deeper rabbet and putty not properly pressed, one-fifteenth 
pound per lineal foot of glass edge may be used. The cost 
of setting plate glass is about 7 cts. per sq. ft. Floor and 



Number 
of hrs. 

labor on 
each. 


Labor 
cost of 
each, 
wages be- 
ing 40 cts. 
per hour. 


1>^ 


$0.60 


5 


2.00 
2.60 


r- 


2.60 
3.60 


7 
6 

1 


2.80 
2.40 
0.40 
0.60 


10 
7 

4X 
5>i 


4.00 
2.80 
1.80 
2.20 


4 


1.60 


10 


4.00 
5.00 



32 


12.80 


24 


9.60 


% 


0.80 


1 


0.40 


3 


1.20 


5 


2.00 



COST OF ERECTING BilLDlNGlS, 521 

sidewalk glass may be set for 5 cts. per sq. ft.; skylight 
glass for 8 cts. per sq. ft. 

Cost of Closets and Sideboards. — The following mis- 
cellaneous labor costs will serve as a guide: The labor 
costs are given in dollars and cents, wages being 40 cts. 
per hour: 

Cost of 
Labor^ 

Drawers, if dovetailed, each $1.00 

Drawers, 15 ins. wide, 18 ins. deep, including racks 

and fittings, each 0.80 

Shelves, in a storeroom, shelves dadoed into compart- 
ments 18 ins, square, per sq, ft. of shelf 0.25 

Shelves, in pantry, no dadoing, per sq. ft 0.15 

Closet hooks, on a strip of wood, hooks 12 ins. apart, 

per lin. ft. of strip 0.06 

Sideboard, ash, 8x8 ft, drawers, doors, brackets, 

shelves, mirrors and hardware 50.00 

Sideboard, oak, less detail than before 40.00 

Sideboard, pine, fairly good 25.00 

Cost of Making Stairs. — The labor cost of making a 
number of different kinds of stairs will be given, labor be- 
ing 40 cts. per hour. The cost includes the making and 
setting of the stairs, but does not include mill work. 

Cost of 
Labor. 
Two flights of stairs (foir a school), 6 ft. wide, with 

ceiling rail $35.00 

Three flights of oak stairs (for a hospital), 5 ft. wide 

with continuous rail 90.00 

Three flights of oak stairs (for a seminary) 120.00 

Box-stair, long, without landing 9.00 

Box-stair, for cellar or attic, if windows are used.. 10.00 

One flight of plain stairs, in a 7-room house 16.00 

One flight of fine stairs, in a 9-room house 40.00 

Cost of Tin Roofing. — The sizes of tin sheets are 14 
X 20 ins., and 20 x 28 ins. An allowance of 1 in. must be 
made for laps at joints; with sheets 20 x 28 ins., a square 
(100 sq. ft.) requires 29 sheets. With 14 x 20-in. sheets, 
allow 63 per square, and 50% more of solder, rosin, etc. A 



522 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

box of tin contains 112 sheets, and the large sheets oC 
I. C. tin weigh 225 lbs. per box; the I. X., 285 lbs. per 
box. 

One man, at 40 cts. per hr., will lay 2 squares of plain 
ro'oiflng per day. One man will line about 75 sq. ft. of 
box gutter, or an equal amount of flashing, per day. The 
cost per square of tin roof was as follows: 

Per square. 

29 sheets of I. C. tin, 55 lbs., at 8 cts $4.40 

5 lbs. solder, at 14 cts 0.70 

iVz lbs. nails, at 4 cts 0.06 

1 lb. rosin 0.04 

Labor, at 40 cts. per hr 1.60 

Charcoal 0.10 

Painting two coats 1.50 

Total $8.40 

A man, at 40 cts. per hr., will put up plain metal ceilings 
at the rate of 1% to 2 squares per day, including cornice 
and centers. On a large room, and plainest kind of work, 
he may do 3 or 4 squares. Wainscoting, at the same rate. 

A man, with a helper, will lay 12 squares of corrugated 
iron roofing in a day. 

Building Papers and Felts.— The cheapest grade of 
building paper is "rosin-sized" paper. It is not water- 
proof, and should not be used on roofs, or on walls in a 
damp climate. It comes in rolls 36 ins. wide, containing 
500 sq. ft., weighing 18 to 40 lbs., and costs about 3 cts. 
per lb. 

There are a number of different kinds of waterproof 
papers used for sheathing under siding or shingles. P. & 
B. building paper, for example, is coated with a paraffin 
compound. It comes in rolls 26 ins. wide containing 1,000 
sq. ft. The weights per roll are: 

Ply 1-ply. 2-ply. 3-ply. 4-p:y. 

Weight 30 lbs. 40 lbs. 65 lbs. 80 lbs. 

. Price is 10 cts. per lb. 

Common dry felts are made of wood fibers cemented to- 
gether with rosin, They weigh about 5 lbs. per 100 sq. ft 



COST OF ERECTING BUILDINGS. 523 

The best grades of dry felt are made of wool, and weigh 11 
lbs. per 100 sq, ft. when they are %-in. thick; but some 
brands are 50% heavier than this. The price of dry wool 
felt is about 2^4 cts. per lb. Such felts are used. 

Tar felt, or common roofing felt, is made by saturating 
common dry felt with coal tar. The weight of a single 
layer or ply is 12, 15 or 20 lbs. per 100 sq. ft, but the felt 
is laid in several layers, usually 4 or 5-ply, in making a 
roof, each layer being mopped with a "composition" of 
% tar and % pitch. The price of tar felt is about 1^^ cts. 
per lb. 

There are many kinds of patent roo'fing felts. Ordinarily 
they come in rolls 29 ins. wide, and each roll covers a 
square, allowing 2 ins. for the lap. Nails and cement are 
isupplied with each roll by the manufacturers. The cost 
of the roofing is $3 to $5 per square, and the cost of laying 
it is about 1 hr. labor per square, or 40 cts. The weight 
of such roofing varies considerably, but ordinarily is about 
100 lbs per 100 sq. ft. 

Cost of Gravel Roofs. — ^^Tar felt, 4 or 5-ply, is first 
laid, the sheets being mopped with "composition" of % 
tar and % pitch. Screened roofing gravel is spread over the 
roof. A square of gravel roof costs about as follows: 

Per square. 

1-6 cu. yd. (450 lbs.) gravel, at ?2.40 $0.40 

40 lbs. tar, at 1^ cts 0.60 

80 lbs. pitch, at iVz cts 1.20 

100 sq. ft. felt, 4-ply, 75 lbs., at 1% cts 1.13 

Labor, at 35 cts. per hr 0.70 

Total per 100 sq. ft $4.03 

Note: About 20 lbs. of "composition" per square per 
ply is ordinarily sufficient where sheets are mopped ofily at 
the joints instead of all over; ibut in the above the sheets 
are assumed to be mopped all over, which takes 50% more 
composition. 

Tar is usually sold by the gallon, or by the oil barrel 
holding 50 gallons, present prices being 12 cts. per gallon. 
Tar weighs exactly as much as water, or 7^ lbs. per 
gallon. 



524 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of Slate Roofs. — Roofing slate comes in a great 
vai^iety of sizes, the most common of which are 16 x 8, 16 
X 10 and 18 x 9 ins.; but sizes as large as 24 x 14^ and as 
small as 12 x 6, are made. To determine the number of 
pieces to a square, deduct 3 ins. from the length (for the 
lap), divide this by 2, multiply by the width of the slate 
and divide the result into 14,400. A 18 x 9 slate would be 
estimated thus: 18 — 3 = 15^ which divided by 2 gives 
TVs; then 7i^ x 9 = 671/2; then 14,400 -^ 671/2 = 214 pieces. 

Slates are sold by the square, that is a sufficient number 
of slates to lay 100 sq. ft., each course having a lap of 
3 ins. over the head of those in the second course below. 
The price f. o. b. Pennsylvania and Vermont quarries 
varies according to the grade; but a good No. 1 slate, 
3-16-in. thick, can be bought for $5 per square. The 'freight 
from Pennsylvania or Vermont to the Mississippi River 
is about $2.50 per square. Allow about 1% waste, unless 
the roof is perfectly plain. 

The weight of 1 sq. ft. of slate %-in. thick is 3.6 lbs. As 
there are 214 pieces of 18 x 9-in. slate per square of roof; 
and if it were all i/4-in. thick, the weight would be 868 lbs.; 
If it were 3-16-in. thick, the weight would be 621 lbs. 

Before laying the slate, the roof is covered with paper. 
A 50 -lb. roll will cover 400 sq. ft., and with wages at 40 
cts. per hr., the cost of laying the paper is 20 cts. per 
square. The holes for the nails must be punched in the 
slate before laying. This may be done by the manufac- 
turers, but it is usually done by hand by the slaters, be- 
cause if a corner is broken off in transport the slate can 
be turned end for end, moreover as slate usually comes in 
three thicknesses it must be sorted anyway before lay- 
ing, and the punching can as well be done at the same 
time. One slater, at 40 cts. per hr., with a helper, at 20 
cts. per hr., will punch the holes in 10 x 16-in. slates at 
a cost of 45 cts. per square. 

In laying slates, about one laborer is required for two 
slaters on plain roofs. A slater will punch and lay 3 
squares per 8 hrs. on plain straight work, 2 squares 
on roofs with many hips and valleys, and as low as 1 
square on difficult tower work. For fair average work 
allow 2y2 squares per day per slater, and allow 1 laborer 



COST OF ERECTING BUILDINGS, 525 

to 2 slaters. This includes punching, and laying paper and 
slate. The cost of a slate roof, 10 x 16-in. slates, was as 
follows : 

Per square. 

Slate for 1 square $5.00 

Freight (650 lbs.) 2.50 

Loading and hauling 0.20 

Wastage, 1% of $7.70 0.08 

16 lbs. paper 0.50 

1 lb. nails 0.05 

2% lbs. of 3d galv. nails for slate 0.10 

Slater, at 40 cts. per hr 1.30 

Helper, at 20 cts. per hr 0.30 

Total per square $10.03 

Brick Masonry Data. — ^^The Size Of oommon bricks 
varies widely. I have seen bricks ais small as 2 x S^A x 
ly2 ins. used for house building in New York City. In 
the New England States, common bricks are said to aver- 
age about 21/4 X 3% X 7% ins. In most of the Western 
States, common bricks average 2% x 4% x 8l^ ins. The 
size of individual bricks in a car load often varies con- 
siderably; hard bricks being % to 3-16-in. smaller than 
soft (or salmon) bricks. Pressed or face hricks are quite 
uniformly 2% x iVs x 8% ins. If there is any standard size 
it may be said to be 2^4 x 4 x 8% ins. A thousand bricks, 
averaging 21^ x 4 x 8% ins. weigh 5,400 lbs., if they weigh 
125 lbs. per cu. ft; and they occupy 43.2 cu. ft. of space, 
which is equivalent to 23^/4 bricks per cu. ft., if no allow- 
ance is made for joints. If these bricks are laid in mas- 
sive masonry with %-in. joints, about 430 bricks will be 
required per cu. yd., or 16 per cu. ft; if laid 'With %-in. 
joints, 515 bricks per cu. yd., or 19 per cu. ft 

Masons have empirical rules for estimating the number 
of bricks in a wall. Their rules do not give even an ap- 
proximation to the actual number, or "kiln count." They 
often make no deductions for openings, but use a "wall 
measure" rule, allowing 7^^ bricks per sq. ft. (or per super- 
ficial foot) for a wall that is a "half brick thick," 'that 
is a 4-in. wall. For "one^brick" wall, that is 8 or 9 ins. 
thick, they estimate 15 bricks per sq. ft. For a "one-and- 



526 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

a-half-brick*' wall (12 or 13 ins. tliick), they estimaite 22^ 
bricks per sq. ft. This rule takes no account of the actual 
size of the bricks, and does not, therefore, give "kiln 
count,** but gives "wall count.'* We have seen, above, 
that "standard size*' bricks, laid with %-in. mortar joints, 
will actually average 16 per cu. ft., as compared with 22i^ 
per cu. ft. "wall count.** 

If all the broken bricks, or "bats," were thrown away, 
the wastage would be about 2% with fair bricks to 5% 
with poor bi'icks; but it is not often that contractors are 
prohibited by Inspectors from using practically all the 
"bats.** 

The cost of loading and hauling paving bricks is given 
on page 158, and practically the same costs apply to build- 
ing bricks, except that the latter are lighter. As above 
stated, the "standard size" hard brick weighs about 5.4 
lbs., or 2.7 tons per M, or 125 lbs. per cu. ft. Soft bricks 
weigh 20% less, but repressed bricks weigh 20% more per 
cubic foot. With wages at 15 cts. per hr., 'the cost of un- 
loading cars into wagons is 30 cts. per M, and, unless a 
dump wagon is used, it costs another 30 cts. per M to 
unload the wagons. 

Cost of Laying Brick. — ^In building brick walls there 
are usually 1 to 1% laborers 'to each brick mason. The 
laborers mix mortar and carry mortar and hricks to the 
masons, using hods for the purpose. A hod holds about 
18 bricks, or approximately 100 lbs. The wages of ma- 
sons and hod carriers vary widely in different cities, but 
seldom exceed $5 per 8-hr. day for masons and $3 for hod 
carriers. Very often the masons* unions have forced up 
their rates of wages, but the hod carriers have not, and 
may receive but little more than other common laborers. 
With wages as just given, and one helper to each mason, 
the labor cost of laying should not exceed $6 per M for 
common brick, and $10 per M for pressed (face) brick, 
"kiln count'* in both cases. 

On a 'three-story brick hospital, with a carefully laid 
front (^-In. "shaved" joints), the labor cost was $5.50 per 
M, "kiln count.'* There were three laborers to every two 
masons, and wages were llYo cts. per hr. for laborers, and 
45 cts. per hr. for masons, working 9 hrs. The cost of 



COST OF ERECTING BUILDINGS. 527 

the masons' wages amounted to $3.50 per M, and the cost 
of the helpers' wages was $2 per M. This cost was rather 
high, due to the number of deep flat brick arches over 
basement openings, and to the row-lock arches over other 
openings, as well as a tower and other puttei'ing work. 

In building warehouses, where the work was plain, 
wages being as just given, the cost was $4 per M, "kiln 
count." 

On several large city buildings, in which 15 to 20% of the 
brick masonry was pressed brick, each brick mason laid 
the following average number, "kiln count," per 9-hr. day: 

Apartment house, 4 stories 1,200 

Four-story fronts 1,250 

Heavy walls, ground level 1,500 

Heavy footings and warehouse basement walls.. 3,200 
A bricklayer should lay 400 or 500 pressed brick per 
8-hr. day. If an ornamental brick front is to be laid, with 
molded arches, buttresses with bases and caps, etc., the 
labor of laying pressed brick may run as high as $20 per M. 
In veneering a frame building with brick, a mason will 
average 400 bricks per day. 

In building brick arches to support the sidewalk in front 
of a city building, after the centers were set, each brick 
layer averaged 1,800 bricks per 9-hr. day; and it required 
one man to make and deliver mortar and to deliver brick 
to every two bricklayers. The brick arches were 5-ft. span, 
11 ft. long, and 4 ins. thick. 

Cost of Mortar. — With lime mortar, mixed 1 part lime 
to 3 parts sand, it required 0.9 bbl. lime per M of bricks, 
"kiln count," the bricks being laid with %-in. joints. A 
common allowance in estimating the cost of mortar, for 
"standard size" bricks, is 1 bbl. lime and 0.6 cu. yd. sand 
per M, ''kiln count." About % cu. yd. of mortar is usually 
allowed per cu. yd. of brick masonry, or 0.7 cu. yd. mor- 
tar per M of bricks, when bricks are laid with %-in. joints. 
If cement mortar is used, the number of barrels of ce- 
ment per cubic yard of mortar will be found on page 253. 
It will seldom require less than 1.6 bbls. of cement per 
M of bricks, or 0.8 bbl. per cu. yd. of brick masonry, for 
if the mortar is made leaner it will not trowel well, and 
cause more loss in labor than is saved in cement. 



52S HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Rockland, Me., lime is sold by the barrel, 220 lbs. net 
When shipped in bulk 2% bu., of 80 lbs. per bu., are usu- 
ally called a barrel. A barrel holds about 3.6 cu. ft. The 
average yield of lime paste from the best limes is 2.6 bbls. 
of paste for each barrel of quick lime. This paste is 
usually mixed with 2 parts sand by measure. It, therefore, 
takes about l^^ bbls. of the best quick lime to make 1 cu. yd. 
of mortar. A poor lime does not make % as much naste 
as a good lime. 

The price of lime is about 60 cts. per bbl. 

Cost of Placing Tile Fireprooling. — Hollow tile used 
for floors or walls, or for protecting steel beams and col- 
umns, is measured by the square foot. It is desirable to 
purchase it from the manufacturers on the basis of the 
square foot measured in the work. Where the brick 
layers' wages were 45 cts. per hr., the tile work in a four- 
story hospital cost 5% cts. per sq. ft, for the labor on 
the 10-in. and 12-in. tile floors and roof. This does not in- 
clude the cost of hauling the tile to the building, but it 
does include the hoisting and delivery of the tile to the 
masons. The labor cost of 4-in. tile partitions and tile 
protection for I-beams and columns was 4% cts. per sq. ft. 

Cost of Brick Cliimneys,— On small chimneys and 
fireplaces the labor costs 2 to 3 times as much per M as 
on plain wall work. A mason (55 cts. per hr.) and helper 
will lay 600 bricks in 9 hrs. The labor costs 30 to 35 cts. 
per lin. ft. for single-flue chimneys, 8x8 ins. square and 
4 ins. thick; and 50 cts. per lin. ft. for double-flue chim- 
ney. There is a wastage of brick of about 5% where the 
brick flt, or 10% where cutting is necessary. 

Cost of High Brick Chimney Stacks.— With wages 
of masons at 55 cts. per hr., and where the flue is large 
enough for men to work from the inside, the cost of lay- 
ing bricks for chimney stacks, 100 to 125 ft. high, is $12 
per M of bricks. In one case a stack 150 ft. high, con- 
taining 250,000 bricks, cost $7 per M for labor, wages be- 
ing as above given. 

Cost of Rubble Walls. — Basement walls are commonly 
made of rubble. The best work requires "two-man rubble," 
that is stone too heavy for one man to lift. A common 



COST OF ERECTING BUILDINGS. 529 

l^ bbl. cement, and 2,800 lbs. stone, per cu. yd. of wall. If 
lime is used, allow % bbl. lime. A mason and helper will 
lay 3 cu. yds. in 8 hrs., so that if wages are 50 cts. per 
hr. for mason and 25 cts. per hr. for helper, the cost of 
laying is $2 per cu. yd. 

For further data, see the sections on Masonry and Con- 
crete. 

Cost of Ashlar. — Ashlar in buildings is estimated by 
the cubic foot. In ordering "raw stone" (uncut stone) for 
ashlar, give the quarryman the exact number of cubic 
feet measured in the wall. He will make allowance for the 
waste in cutting it. 

The cost of Bedford ashlar for the moldings, turrets, etc., 
in an Omaha building was: 

Per cu. ft. 

Raw Bedford $0.65 

Cuting, wages 55 cts. per hr. 1.00 

Setting in the building 0.20 

Washing and pointing 0.05 

Total in place $1.90 

It requires about 1 gal. muriatic acid to wash 50O sq. ft. 
To wash and point the joints costs 3 cts. per sq. ft. 

Cost of Wood Lathing. — The standard size of wood 
laths is %-in. x ly^ ins. x 4 ft. There is a special lath 
made 32 ins. in length. Laths are sold by the 1,000 in 
bundles of 50 or 100 laths per bundle. A common price Is 
$3 per 1,000 laths. It requires 1,500 standard laths to 
cover 100 sq. yds. Allow 10 lbs. of 3d fine nails for 100 
sq. yds. when joists are 16 ins. center to center. Chicago 
lathers have fixed 1,250 laths as a day's work per man. 
The cost per 100 sq. yds. is as follows: 

100 sq. yds. 

1,500 laths, at $3 per M $4.50 

10 lbs. nails, at 3 cts 0.30 

Labor, at $3.20 per 8-hr. day 3.20 

Total per 100 sq. yds $8.00 

This is 8 cts. per sq. yd. There is no uniformity in prac- 
tice as to deducting window and door openings from the 
area lathed. 



530 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of Metal Lathing.— There are several makes of 
wire lathing, as well as expanded metal lathing. For 
plastering, the Expanded Metal Engineering Co., of New 
York, furnish two styles of expanded metal lath, in sheets 
1^ X 8 ft, as follows: 

Lbs. per sq. ft. 

"Diamond" lath, Gage No. 24 3.65 

"Diamond" lath, Gage No. 26 2.66 

"A" lath. Gage No. 24 4.23 

"B" lath, Gage No. 27 2.84 

The price of these laths ranges from 15 cts. to 20 cts. 
per sq. yd. 

The cost per 100 sq. yds. is as follows: 

100 sq. yds. 

100 sq. yds., "Diamond" No. 26 $15.00 

10 lbs. staples, at 3 cts 0.30 

Labor, at $3.20 per 8-hr. day 3.20 

Total per 100 sq. yds $18.50 

This labor includes the cost of scaffolding, and is based 
upon some 6,000 sq. yds. of work. It will be noted that 
the labor cost is 1.2 cts. per lb. of metal. 

Cost of Plaster.— Plastering on laths generally re- 
quires three coats, occasionally two coats. The first is 
the scratch coat; the second is the brown coat; the third 
is the white coat, or finish. On brick walls the scratch 
coat is generally omitted. 

Plaster is made either with lime or with cement plaster. 
Cement plaster (or wall plaster) usually consists prin- 
cipally of plaster of Paris. Some plasters are made of 
lime gaged with Portland cement. Whatever kind of 
lime or plaster is used, sand and hair are mixed with the 
plaster. The hair is put up in paper bags supposed to 
contain 1 bu. of hair when beaten up, and supposed to 
weigh about 7 lbs. Some cement plasters are sold with 
the proper amount of hair mixed in. Cement plaster is 
commonly sold in 100-lb. sacks, four sacks making 1 bbL 
A common price is 25 cts. per sack. 

In making lime plaster, 1 part of lime paste to 2 or 2^; 
parts of screened sand is used. About 1% cu. yds. of 



COST OF ERECTING BUILDINGS. 531 

sand are required per 100 sq. yds. of three-coat plaster, 

and about 4 bbls. of lime, or cement plaster, and 2 bu. of 

hair. 

The cost of 100 sq. yds. of three-coat plaster is about as 

follows : 

100 sq. yds. 

1.75 cu. yds. sand, at $1 $1.75 

3l^ bbls. lime, or 9 bu., at 35 cts 3.15 

2 bu. hair, at 40 cts 0.80 

100 lbs. plaster of Paris, at 50 cts 0.50 

Labor, plasterers, at 55 cts. per hr 15.00 

Total, 100 sq. yds., at 21.2 cts $21.20 

Cost o£ Steel Mill and Mine Buildings. — The follow- 
ing is a summary of data given in Ketchum's "Steel Mill 
Buildings," a book containing much excellent information 
on estimating steel work: 

The drawings for steel mill buildings usually show only 
the dimensions of the "main members." The estimator 
usually calculates the weights of these main members and 
adds a percentage to provide for the weight of the "de- 
tails." The ^'details" are the plates and rivets used in 
fastening the main members together. The weight of 
the "details" of trusses will commonly be 25 to 35% of 
the weight of the "main members," being usually nearer 
25%. After computing the actual weights of details for 
a few buildings, the estimator will seldom blunder in com- 
puting by percentages. 

In estimating the weight of corrugated steel, add 25% 
for laps where the side lap is two corrugations, and the 
end lap is 6 ins.; add 15% where the side lap is 
one corrugation and the end lap is 4 ins. Corru- 
gated steel is usually made with corrugations 2% ins. wide 
(from ridge to ridge) and %-in. deep. The thickness 
of the steel is usually given in U. S. Standard Gage. The 
following are the weights per 100 sq. ft. of black corru- 
gated steel: 

Gage, No 16 

Lbs. per 100 sq. ft 275 

Add 16 lbs. per 100 sq. ft. if the steel is galvanized. 



18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


520 


165 


138 


111 


84 


69 



532 BANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The cost of steel mill buildings is divided into four 
items: (1) cost of steel; (2) cost of shop work; (3) cost 
of transportation, and (4) cost of erection. The price 
of structural steel may be found in current numbers of 
"Iron Age," published in New York. The price is now 
(1905) about 1.8 cts. per lb. at New York. 

The following are actual shop costs, in a shop having a 
capacity of 1,000 tons per month, and with labor estimated 
at 40 cts. per hr., which includes also the cost of manage- 
ment and the cost of operating and maintaining the shop 
equipment: 

Cost of shop-work. Cts. per lb. 
Columns, made of 2 channels and 2 plates, 

1,000 lbs 0.8 

Columns, made of single I-beam, or single 

angle 0.5 

Columns, Z-bar 0.8 

Columns, plain, cast iron 0.8 to 1.5 

Riveted roof-trusses, 1,000 lbs. each 1.2 

Riveted roof-trusses, 1,500 lbs. each 1.0 

Riveted roof-trusses, 2,500 lbs. each 0.8 

Riveted roof-trusses, 3,500 to 7,500 lbs. each.. 0.6 to 0.75 

Plate-girders, for crane girders and floors 0.6 to 1.3 

Eye-bars, % x 3 ins. x 16 to 30 ft. 1.2 to 1.8 

Eye-bars, large 0.5 to 0.8 

Steel frame transformer building, 60 x 80 ft, 
with 20-ft. posts, pitch of roof %, 55,700 
lbs. steel framework, including drafting 1.0 

Smelter building, 270 tons, incl. drafting 0.86 

Six gallows frames, incl. drafting 1.0 to 2.0 

Drafting design of "details" for 

Ordinary buildings 0.1 to 0.2 

Headworks for mines 0.2 to 0.3 

Roof-trusses 0.3 to 0.4 

With skilled labor at $3.50 and common labor at ?2 per 
9-hr. day, the cost of erecting small buildings is about 0.5 
ct. per lb., or $10 per ton, if trusses are riveted and other 
connections bolted. 

The cost of erecting small buildings in which all connec- 
tions are bolted is about 0.3 ct. per lb., or $6 per ton. 



CO^T OF ERECTING BUILDINGS. 533 

The cost of erecting heavy machine shops, all material 
riveted, is about 0.45 ct. per lb., or $9 per ton, including 
labor of painting. 

The cost of erecting 6 gallows frames was 0.65 ct. per lb., 
or $13 per ton. 

The cost of laying corrugated steel roof is about $0.75 
per square, or $9 per ton for No. 20 steel, when laid on 
plank sheathing; it is $1.25 per square, or $15 per ton, 
when laid directly on the purlins; it is $2 per square, or 
$24 per ton, when laid with anti-condensation roofing. 
The erection of corrugated steel siding costs $0.75 to $1.00 
per square, or $9 to $12 per ton for No. 20 steel. 

Cost of Erecting the Steel in Four Buildings. — The 

costr are given in tons of 2,000 lbs. On a four-story, fire- 
proof hospital the cost of erecting the steel and cast iron 
was $4.50 per ton; hand derricks were used, and the work 
was all done by common laborers, at $1.50 per day. With 
a steam derrick the cost might have been reduced to $3.50 
per ton. On a three-story business block, under the same 
conditions as before, the store fronts were erected for $5 
per ton. 

On a large railroad machine shop, with structural steel 
v/orkers at 40 cts. per hr., the ccst of erecting was $8 per 
ton. In this case the work was all heavy, the lightest 
truss weighing 5 tons. On train sheds, and where lighter 
sections were used, and where there were more field rivets 
to the ton, the cost was $10. Ordinarily there are about 
10 field rivets to the ton, and it is safe to allow 10 cts. each, 
or $1 per ton for riveting alone. There are buildings in 
which 25 field rivets per ton are required. The foregoing 
costs of steel erection include unloading from cars, setting 
derricks and scaffolding. 

The cost of erecting large electric cranes is about $3 per 
ton if put in place directly from the cars. Add $1.50 per 
ton if unloaded from cars before erecting. 

References. — Any one engaged in estimating the cost 
of very many buildings will do well to consult Arthur's 
''Building Estimator," Ketchum's **Steel Mill Buildings," 
and Kidder's "Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book." 

The prices of hardware may be obtained from "The Iron 



534 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Age Standard Hardware List" ($1), published by The Iron 
Age, New York City. The current discounts are given in 
The Iron Age, a copy of which costs 10 cts. 

The prices of lumber are quoted weekly in such papers 
as the "New York Lumber Trade Journal.'* Different mills 
issue catalogues giving prices of mill work. 



SECTION XL 
COST OF STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 

Cost of Making Hewed Ties. — From a pine tree that is 
14 ins. diameter at the height of a man's shoulder, from 
3 to 5 pole ties may be made. The ties are hewed 8 to 
8% ft. long, 6 ins. thick, with two hewed faces 8 ins. wide, 
and the bark on the sides is peeled with a tie peeler. A 
skillful man can cut and make 40 to 50 of these ties per day. 

Cost of Timber Trestles and Culverts. — Mr. William 
Barclay Parsons gives the following data on the cost of 
railway trestles built in 1890, in the northwestern part of 
Pennsylvania, in a wooded mountainous district. The tim- 
ber was hemlock and most of it was sawed, but about one- 
seventh, or li%j of the timbers were hewed. Bents were 
12 ft. apart, with 12 x 12-in. posts, caps and sills; stringers 
were 12 x 18-in. Bents were braced with 2 x l2's. Tres- 
tles v/ere made up to 28 ft. in height. All members were 
fastened with drift bolts. About 102 M were used, of which 
14 M were hewed from timber alongside. The average 
cost of the sawed timber was $7.50 per M. The cost of 
labor for framing and erecting (including the 14% hewed 
work) was $9.50 per M. 

In Engineering News, Oct. 6, 1892, p. 326, Mr. Emile Low 
gives the itemized cost of a narrow gage (3 ft.) railway 
from Castle Shannon, to Finleyville, Pa. The tracklaying 
cost less than $200 per mile. There were 15 M of sawed 
timber culverts, the labor on which cost $8 per M; and 35 
M of wooden bridges, the labor on which also cost $8 
per M. 

In the section on Pile Driving and Timberwork the read- 
er will find a number of other examples of the cost of tres- 
tles, etc. 



536 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

A Cheap Way of Loading Ties. — In Engineering News, 
Sept. 18, 1902, the following device for economic handling 
of ties is described. The device is so simple and so well 
adapted to handling other materials that the details are 
here given. It consists of an overhead trolley, traveling 
on a 4-in. I-beam that serves as a rail. In loading box 
cars with ties, one end of this I-beam is supported on a 
light wooden A-frame, 7 ft. high and standing about 15 
ft. from the car door; the other end of the I-beam enters 
the car door, and inside the door it is fastened to two bars 
(1/4x3 ins.) that branch, forming a Y with curved branches, 
so that one trolley can run toward one end of the car, an- 
other trolley toward the other end. The trackway in the 
car is hung from the roof rafters by clamps. From each 
of the trolleys is suspended, by a chain, an L-shaped tie 
stirrup for carrying a tie. Two men unload a tie from 
a truck and place it on the tie-stirrup, one man (one on 
each trolley) runs the tie into the car, the track having 
a slight down grade, and one man (one at each end of the 
car) assists in unloading and piling. The man then takes 
the trolley off the track and carries it back to the loaders. 
Thus with a gang of 6 men as much work is done as with 
10 men unaided by this device. A gang of 6 men loaded 
3,325 large creosoted hewn ties in 9 hrs., no effort being 
made to make a record. When timed they unloaded a 
truck of 30 ties into the car in 2 mins. Creosoted ties 
weigh 200 to 250 lbs. each, and as one man by using a 
trolley can easily transport them, it is evident that much 
labor is saved. I would suggest the use of a similar de- 
vice for handling sacks of cement (2 sacks on a double 
stirrup), for handling brick, two-man stone, etc. 

A Method o£ Unloading Rails. — An effective method of 
unloading rails, along a track where new rails are to be 
put in, is described and illustrated in Engineering News, 
March 28, 1891. The car is provided with a tail board 
that hangs down and drags along on the track, forming 
an inclined plane. A hook on a rope is hooked into a 
rail, and another hook, on the other end of the rope, is 
hooked over a tie. As the car moves slowly forward 
the rail is dragged out. By having two of these ropes and 
hooks, pulling out two rails at a time, 71 rails were un- 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 537 

loaded in 25 mins. from a drop end gondola, and 86 rails in 
42 mins. from a solid end gondola. 

Cost of Tracklaying, M., St. Paul & S. S. M. Ry.— 

In Engineering News, Nov. 14, 1895, the following data are 
given, together with illustrations showing the bunk-cars, 
tie wagons, etc.: 

About 263 miles of track were laid in 1892-3 from Val- 
ley City across North Dakota. The tracklaying and sur- 
facing were done by the railway company, not by contract. 
The track was 72-lb. rails laid on 16 ties to the 30-ft. rail. 
The construction train was made up of 32 cars, the loco- 
motive being in the middle of the train. The next car 
behind the locomotive was an ordinary flat car loaded 
with telegraph material; then followed 15 box cars loaded 
with ties. In front of the locomotive were the following 
cars, No. 1 being the one farthest front. , 

No. 1, Pioneer car. This was double deck, containing 
blacksmith shop, store room, general foreman's office, tele- 
graph office, two sleeping rooms, and three extra berths. 
In front of the car was a platform carrying extra splice 
bars, bolts and spikes. 

No. 2, store car. This was double deck, and had a store 
room for provisions and one for clothes, sleeping berths 
for cooks and a sleeping apartment above. 

Nos. 3 and 4, dining and sleeping cars, double deck. 

No. 5, kitchen car, single deck. 

No. 6, dining and sleeping car, double deck. 

No. 7, feed and fuel car, ordinary box car. 

No. 8, water car, flat car with a 2,000-gal. tank at each 
end. 

Nos. 9 to 16, flat cars with rails and spikes. 

Work commenced at 7 a. m., the teams hauling ties from 
the five rear cars. The ties were shoved from the car 
down a tie chute, provided with three rollers, and were 
loaded into a V-shaped rack on a wagon holding 25 ties. 
The rails were unloaded onto the ground from both sides 
of the cars, and the train pulled back out of the way. The 
rails were loaded onto two ''iron cars" and hauled to the 
end of the track by horses. The iron car gang would 
"drop" 100 rails (1,500 ft. of track) in half an hour. As 
soon as a pair was dropped upon the ties, a hook gage 
was thrown over them, at the forward end, and the horse 



538 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

pulled the car forward 30 ft. Two more rails were then 
run out, and so on. The tracklaying force was as follows: 

Iron car gang, who dropped rails ($2.25 each) 22 

Strappers, who adjusted and bolted splices ($2 each) 6 

Spike peddlers ($1.50 each) 2 

Tie-spacing gang ($1.50 each) 12 

Men lining ties, with rope and stakes ($1.75 each) 2 

Men spacing joint ties ($1.75 each) , 2 

Men leveling grade cut by tie wagons ($1.50 each) 4 

Spikers ($2 each) 16 

Nippers, holding up end ties for spikers ($1.50 each) 8 

Tracklining gang ($1.75 each) 6 

Teamsters for tie wagons ($35 per mo. and board) 40 

Men unloading ties from cars ($1.75 each) 15 

Men unloading rails and fastenings from cars ($1.75 

each) 4 

Telegraph gang 8 

Telegraph operator ($50 per mo.) 1 

Drivers of iron car horses 2 

Blacksmith ($2.25) 1 

Night watchman 1 

Cooks ($50 per mo.) 2 

Baker, working nights 1 

Waiters 5 

Storekeeper 1 

Total men 161 

Foremen ($65 per mo. each) 5 

General foreman ($150 per mo.) 1 

Note that the teams of horses are not included, but the 
drivers of the teams are included in the above. The men 
were boarded for $3.50 a week, and this was deducted from 
the wages of all except teamsters. 

The telegraph gang, consisted of 8 men and 1 foreman. 
The cedar poles were 25 ft. long, spaced 30 to the mile, 
set 5 ft. in the ground. The wire was stretched from a reel 
on a small hand wagon pushed by the men. 

This force of 167 men and about 45 pairs of horses aver- 
aged 3 miles of track per day. If we consider a pair of 
horses (not including driver) as equivalent in cost to the 
wages of one man, and the average wages as being $1.75 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 539 

per day per man, we have a total daily cost of $371, not 
including the cost of operating two locomotives. About 
$405 would apparently cover the daily cost, at which rate 
the cost of tracklaying was about $135 per mile, includ- 
ing the erecting of the telegraph line, but not including 
the cost of surfacing the track. On one occasion the above 
force laid 4 miles in 10 hrs. In dry open country, like 
North Dakota, this method was faster than working with 
track machines and no more expensive. In swampy, very 
hilly or timbered country, the tracklaying machines are 
especially serviceable. 

The track surfacing gangs followed the tracklayers and 
surfaced the track so as to make a safe roadway and pre- 
vent bending of the rails and splices before the ballast- 
ing was done. These gangs numbered 40 to 45 men under 
a foreman and sub-foreman. About 250 men were re- 
quired, and they went to and from work on hand cars, 
their boarding cars being located on the sidings which 
were put in about every 10 miles. It would appear from 
this statement that the surfacing cost about as much per 
mile as the tracklaying; bringing the total to $250 per 
mile. 

Cost of Tracklaying, 50-lb. Rails. — The following 
gang averaged one-mile of track laid per day by contract. 
The track was not surfaced by this force. 

Tie gang: Per day. 

1 panel spacer, at $1.50 $1.50 

1 tie surfacer, at $1.50 1.50 

2 tie liners, at $1.50 3.00 

3 tie unloaders, at $1.50 4.50 

6 tie spreaders, at $1.50 9.00 

1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 

1 foreman, at $3.00 • 3.00 

Iron gang: 

1 gager, at $2.00 2.00 

2 heelers, at $2.00 4.00 

2 unloaders, at $2.00 4.00 

6 iron men, at $2.00 12.00 

1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 

1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 



540 HANDBOOK OF COST DAT 

Front gang: Per day. 

1 tie spacer, at $1.50 1.50 

1 spike peddler, at $1.50 1.50 

2 nippers, at $1.50 3.00 

4 spikers, at $2.00 8.0O 

5 strappers, at $1.50 7.50 

1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 

1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 

Tie loading gang: 

16 men (4 gangs of 4 each), at $1.50 24.00 

1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 

1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 

Back spiking gang: 

1 tie spacer, at $1.50 1.50 

2 spike peddlers, at $1.50 3.00 

4 nippers, at $1.50 6.00 

8 spikers, at $2.00 16.00 

1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 

1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 

Lining gang: 

5 men, at $1.50 7.50 

1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 

Back filling gang: 

15 men, at $1.50 22.50 

1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 

1 foreman, at $3.00 3.00 

Hauling gang: 

18 teamsters, at $1.80 32.40 

1 waterboy, at $1.25 1.25 

40 mules' feed, at $0.40 16.00 

1 wagon master, at $3.00 3.00 

General force: 

1 camp boss, teamsters' camp, at $2.25 2.25 

1 blacksmith, at $2.25 2.25 

2 night watchmen, at $2.25 4.50 

1 tool man, at $2.00 2.00 

1 bookkeeper, at $4.00 4.00 

1 superintendent, at $5.00 5.00 

Material train, fuel and wages 24.00 

Total per day $266.90 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 541 

The force, as above given, can lay 1% miles of steel 
track per day, but cannot keep up the back work and aver- 
age much more than one mile. All ties are full spiked;. 
15 ties to a 30-ft. rail; 50-lb. steel rails. The ties and 
steel are delivered to the contractor on cars at the last 
side track; and side tracks are about 8 miles apart. A 
material train is made up of 10 tie cars, each holding 135 
ties, and 3 steel cars, each holding 60 rails. This train 
is at the boarding train at 6 a. m., in time to take the 
force to the front after breakfast. The back-fillers, liners 
and back-spikers are dropped where work had stopped the 
day before, and the 10 cars of ties (which are in the rear 
of the locomotive) are uncoupled far enough back to give 
the train room to move ahead with the 3 cars of steel 
(which are in front of the locomotive) as far as the ''iron 
car" upon which 30 rails at a time are loaded and pushed 
up front. The two unloaders in the iron gang assist in 
loading the iron car; and, while the rails on the iron 
car are being laid, they throw off another 30 rails from 
the flat cars ready to be loaded on the iron car. The 10 
cars of ties are brought up as fast as the track will allow, 
and only enough are unloaded by the tie loaders at one 
time to keep the wagons busy. At noon the train carries 
the force back to dinner, the empty flat cars are side 
tracked, and another train of 10 tie cars and 3 steel cars 
brought up in time to take the men back after dinner. 

In laying the track, the panel spacer with a 30-ft. pole 
and pick keeps far enough ahead to do duty as the road- 
master. The front gangs of spikers (2 on each rail) spike 
3 ties in each panel, always the joint and the 6th and 11th 
ties, skipping 4 ties each time. Of the 5 strappers, one 
untrims the plates, leaving plates, nuts and bolts on the 
joint tie, and the other 4, working 2 on a side, strap up 
and bolt the joints. Should the back-spikers get behind, 
they are assisted by the front-spikers. Should the back- 
fillers get behind, they are reinforced by the tie gangs, 
and the iron gang and strappers can be putting in the 
sidings. 

Of the teams, 16 are used to haul ties, 1 to pull the iron 
car, and 1 to haul water to the boarding train. The 16 
teams haul 14 loads of 12 ties each per day, making 2,688 
ties. 



542 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of Tracklaying on the A., T. & S. Fe R. R. — 

With a well organized force the cost of laying the Arkan- 
sas City extension of the A., T. & S. Fe, in 1888, was $292 
per mile for a month's work. On the same road the iol- 
lowing force laid 2 miles per day: 

. Per day. 

15 men running iron car, at $1.75 $26.25 

2 men unloading iron, at $1.75 3.50 

24 men spiking, at $1.75 42.00 

8 men strapping, at $1.75 14.00 

5 men spacing ties and ''squaring" joints, at 

$1.75 8.75 

4 men lining track, at $1.75 7.00 

7 men setting "joint and center" ties, at $1.75.. 12.25 

2 men carrying gages, at $1.75 3.50 

2 men distributing spikes, at $1.75 3.50 

1 man caring for tools, at $1.75 1.75 

42 men bedding ties, at $1.40 58.80 

12 men ("nippers"), at $1.40 16.80 

18 men handling ties, at $1.40 25.20 

2 men stretching tie line, at $1.40 2.80 

4 men carrying water, at $1.40 5.60 

1 general foreman 3.33 

1 foreman iron car 2.50 

1 foreman tie bedding 2.50 

X foreman handling ties 2.50 

1 foreman track lining 2.50 

1 foreman spiking gang 2.00 

10 extra men, at $1.40 14.00 

22 teams hauling ties, at $3.50 77.00 

1 team hauling iron car, at $3.50 3.50 

Total cost of laying 2 miles $341.53 

In addition to this the surfacing of 2 miles of track per 
day cost as follows: 

80 shovelers, at $1.40 $112.20 

2 "back-bolters," at $1.75 3.50 

1 foreman raising track 2.00 

1 foreman 2.50 

Total cost of surfacing 2 miles .$120.20 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS, 543 

Summary. 

Laying 2 miles $341.53 

Surfacing 2 miles 120.20 

Superintendent of tracklaying 5.00 

Timekeeper 3.00 

Train and engine crews 15.04 

Engineering 10.^7 



Cost of labor only for 2 miles $495.74 

This is practically $250 per mile of track. It does not 
Include the cost of supplying and distributing of ballast 
by train. On the Larned branch 15 miles were laid in 
7 days, but under the favorable circumstance of light 
grades, light work, light earth for ballast, and roadbed in 
first-class condition. Under ordinary conditions the cost 
of laying and surfacing should never exceed $350 per mile. 

Cost of Tracklaying, A., T. & S. F. Ry.— In Engineer- 
ing News, Nov. 8, 1900, the following data are given: 

Some rapid work was done (1899) in the extension of 
the A., T. & S. F. Ry. from Stockton, Cal., to Port Rich- 
mond. The rails were laid with broken joints, 17 ties per 
rail. One stretch of 11 miles (62i^-lb. rails) was laid at 
the rate of 2,846 ft. per day, with a force of 45 men, on 
level grade. Another stretch of 17 miles (75-lb. rails) 
was laid at the rate of 3,500 ft. per day, with 48 men, on a 
descending grade of 1%, with curves at intervals of % 
mile. The best day's work, on the level grade, was 5,400 
ft, with 57 men. The force was as follows: 

Foreman 1 Spike peddler 1 

Sub-Foremen 3 Spacing ties 2 

Strappers 4 Spacing rails 2 

Iron car men 10 Back bolting 2 

Spikers 8 Tie carriers 10 

Nippers 4 Picking up materials ... 1 

Tie line man 1 

Lining ties 2 Total 52 

Tie plater 1 

Kecord of Rapid Construction on tlie C. P. Ry. — 

In the Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc, 1884, p. 150, Mr. E. T. Ab- 



544 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

bott gives a brief account of the rapid construction of 500 
miles of single track road across the prairies from Bran- 
don (132 miles west of Winnipeg). Ground was broken 
May 28, 1882, and continued to Dec. 31. In 182 working 
days, including stormy ones, with a force of about 5,000 
men and 1,700 teams, the contractors did the following: 

6,104,000 cu. yds. earth excav., 2,394 M timber in bridges 
and culverts, 85,700 lin. ft. piling, and 435 miles of track- 
laying. The track was all laid from one end, and in no 
case were the rails hauled ahead by team. Two iron cars 
were used, the empty one on its return being turned up 
beside the track to letf the loaded one by. The tracklay- 
ing crew was equal to 4 miles a day. In the month of 
August, 92 miles of track were laid. The grading forces 
were scattered along 150 miles ahead of the track. Sidings 
1,500 ft. long were graded 7 miles apart. 

Cost of Tracklaying, P., S. & N. R* R. — In Engineer- 
ing News, Nov. 22, 1900, p. 356, Mr. G. C. Woollard gives 
the following on tracklaying on the Pittsburg, Shawmut 
& Northern R. R. The length of track laid was 8 miles. 
With a gang of 46 men and 3 foremen the average day's 
work was 2,870 ft. of track laid; the best day's work was 
3,290 ft. There were 18 men and a foreman in the track- 
laying gang; 17 men and a foreman in the supply gang; 
11 men and a foreman in the back-tieing gang. Beside 
these men there were a locomotive engineer, fireman, con- 
ductor and a brakeman. No teams were used. Trucks 
passed one another by raising one truck to a vertical posi- 
tion on the cross-ties and then allowing it to drop back 
to an oblique position, keeping it from turning over by 
means of a prop while the loaded truck passed. There 
were 18 oak ties to a rail, and rails were 85-lb. All the 
work was on a 2% down grade, which facilitated delivery 
of materials by gravity. 

Cost o£ Tracklaying XTnder Traffic— During a traffic 
of one train per hour, in winter, the cost of taking up old 
rails, unloading and placing new rails on a single track, 
was $140 per mile. The wages of common laborers were 
$1.25 per 10 hrs. 

Cost of Tracklaying Witk Machines.— Tracklaying 
machines do not lay the track, but merely facilitate the de- 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 545 

livery of ties and rails on a series of rollers from the cars 
to the tracklaying gang of men. In rugged or swampy 
country a tracklaying machine is especially economic, be- 
cause the ties cannot be easily delivered by teams. 

With a Holman tracklaying machine, 120 miles of the 
Washington County Ry. (Maine) were laid in 1899. The 
best day's work was 2 miles laid in 9 hrs. with 110 men. 

On the Burlington & Missouri River Ry., with a gang of 
85 men and a Holman machine, 1% miles per day were laid 
at a cost of $100 per mile. The rails were 65-lb. rails, with 
18 ties to a rail. Curves of 1° to 16° were laid. Egually 
good work was done with the Harris tracklaying machine. 

On the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry., 1,300 miles of 
track were laid with a Harris machine in 1886 and 1887. 
The average cost of laying 2 miles per day was as fol- 
lows: 

1 general foreman $5.00 

2 assistant foremen, at $3 6.0O 

109 laborers, at $2 218.00 

1 engine and train crew 20.00 

Total for 2 miles $249.00 

To this must be added $10 per mile for preparatory work in 
transferring material to cars in the yard, and $5 per mile 
royalty for use of the Harris machine, bringing the total 
to $140 per mile. 

The Harris machine is said to be quicker than the Hol- 
man, where long stretches are to be laid; but the Holman 
is more economical for short stretches or where delays 
are frequent, as the gang is smaller. 

Another machine that has been extensively used is the 
Roberts. 

For further information consult Tratman's ''Railway 
Track and Track Work." 

Cost of Laying a Narrow Gage Track. — Where ties 
and rails are dumped along in small piles, and where no 
grading has to be done, a gang of 3 men will average 210 
ft. of track laid in 10 hrs. This applies to a light 3-ft. 



546 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

gage track made of 30-lb. rails on 6 x 6-in. ties, 5 ft. long, 
spaced 3-ft. centers. With wages at 15 cts. per hr., the 
labor cost is practically 2 cts. per ft. of track, or $100 per 
mile, after the materials are delivered. 

Cost of Grravel Ballasting Single Track. — About 30 
miles of single track railroad were ballasted with gravel 
sufficient to raise the ties 8 ins. Ties had 10-in. face, were 
8% ft. long, and there were 16 ties to a 30-ft. rail. A 2%- 
yd. steam shovel was used to load flat cars. About 4 ft. 
of earth had to be stripped off the gravel pit. The gravel 
was hauled by two trains of 35 apron flat cars each, each 
car holding 6 to 7 cu. yds. Two locomotives were used 
to haul these trains and one locomotive in the pit to 
spot cars. The cars were unloaded with a plow, and it 
w^ill be noticed that the damage to the cars caused by the 
plow was very high. The cost to the railway company 
per cubic yard of ballast in place was as follows: 

Cts. per cu. yd. 

Pit rent 1% 

Loading, hauling and dumping 15i/^ 

Repairs to cars 5 

Shoveling and tamping 8 

Total per cu. yd 30 

Common laborers were paid $1.25 per 10 hrs. 

Cost of Balliasting, Using Dump Cars.— The Good- 
win steel car is largely used by contractors, and railway 
companies, for ballasting and for dumping earth and rock 
on standard gage tracks. Its dimensions are 36 ft. long, 
9 ft. %-im height above rails, and it weighs 47,500 lbs. Its 
capacity is 40 cu. yds., or 80,000 lbs. A train of cars can 
be dumped at one time all together, or one at a time, by 
one man operating a compressed air valve, or they can 
be dumped by hand. The car is so designed that its load 
may be placed between the rails; on either side of the 
track, or on both sides, or in any combination of ways de- 
sired. In grading and ballasting 22 miles of track with 
30,000 cu. yds. of gravel, during the winter of 1904-5, an 
average train of 8 40-cu. yd. Goodwin cars was used, the 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 547 

average haul being 14i^ miles. The gravel came from the 
pit quite wet, but required little or no spreading as plows 
and scrapers are not needed when these cars are used. 

In Engineering News, Feb. 17, 1898, Mr. W. B. Stimson, 
Supt. Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry., gives the following data 
on the loading and hauling of gravel for ballast: 

Rodger ballast cars were used, working two trains of 
25 cars per train. Sixteen miles of track were ballasted 
with 1,039 car loads, or 20,800 cu. yds. of gravel, the average 
haul being 7 miles. The cost was as follows for the 16 
miles: 

Two train crews, 12 days each $175.00 

Locomotives, enginemen and watchmen 199.25 

Fuel for locomotives 254.10 

Telegraph operator 15.50 

Pit foreman 28.84 

Pitmen 100.35 

Steam shovel, including rent of shovel, fuel and 

wages 323.52 

Total, at 5.3 cts. per cu. yd $1,096.56 

In addition to this it cost 6.7 cIs. per cu. yd. to spread and 
tamp the gravel in the track, each laborer averaging 75 
ft. of track per day. Including in the expense of 5.3 cts. 
per cu. yd., is the cost of moving the two trains and the 
steam shovel 166 miles to the pit, and half a day's time 
setting up the shovel and getting ready to work; so that 
the actual working time of the shovel was only 10% days, 
making an average of 2,000 cu. yds. loaded per day of 12 
hrs. The depth of the face at which the shovel worked 
was only 8 ft. 

The Rodger ballast car is 8 ft. 9 ins. x 34 ft. over sills, 
weighs 28,000 lbs. and its capacity is 60,000 lbs., or 20 cu. 
yds. of gravel heaped measure. The car is hopper bot- 
tomed, with plows and scrapers for spreading the ballast. 
One car is dumped at a time and fills about 80 ft. of track. 

Cost of Railway Lines. — In Engineering Magazine, Dec, 
1895, Mr. J. F. Wallace gives the following estimates of 



548 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

the average cost per mile of single track railway lines in 
the United States: 

Class of Railway. ABO 

Right of Way $1,000 $1,500 $2,000 

Proportionate expense of terminals 600 1,500 5,000 

Bridges and culverts 1,500 2,600 4,000 

Grading 3,000 6,000 12,000 

Track laid 6,000 6,500 7,000 

Ballast (rock) , 2,500 3,000 

Fencing..... 300 400 400 

Telegraph 200 250 250 

Water supply and stations 500 800 1,200 

Engineering 400 600 700 

General and legal expenses 200 400 600 

Equipment, cars and locomotives 1 , 600 2 , 500 4.000 

Total $15,100 $25,350 $40,150 

Class "A'* is a branch line, 2 passenger and 4 daily freight 
trains. 

Class "B" is a secondary line, connecting small cities. 

Class **C" is a trunk line, 90-lb. rails. 

Mr. A. Pew, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 23, in a paper 
entitled "The Cheapest Railway in the World," gives the 
following as the cost of a 19-mile railway in Georgia: 

Cost per mile of road and track $3,440 

Cost per mile for equipment 1,000 

The roadbed was only 10 ft. wide in fills and 14 ft. in 
cuts, and the excavation averaged 4,000 cu. yds. per mile. 
The excavation cost only 9 cts. per cu. yd., wages of la- 
borers being $1 per 10-hr. day. The ties cost only 10 cts. 
each, and 45-lb. rails were used. 

I would add that often the country is such that much 
less than 4,000 cu. yds. of excavation per mile will sufiice. 
Ordinarily, however, the excavation will average 10,000 
cu. yds. per mile, which may be done at a contract price 
of 20 to 30 cts. per cu. yd. of earth, when wages of laborers 
are $1.50 a day. 

Cost of a Logg^ing Railway. — Mr. William Barclay 
Parsons, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 25, p. 119, briefly 
describes the location and construction of 7 miles of stand- 
ard gage logging railroad built in Northwestern Pennsyl- 
vania in 1890. The maximum curve was 18°, and the rul- 
ing grade, 8.3%. The country was heavily wooded with 
hemlock and very rough; clearing and grubbing costing 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAIL^yAYS. 549 

$50 to $60 an acre for a right of way 50 ft. wide. Cuts were 
16 ft. wide and fills 12 ft. Log culverts were used under 
banks 10 ft. or less in height. The excavation averaged 
nearly 11,000 cu. yds. per mile, of which 7.6% was rock, 11% 
loose rock, 35.2% tough clay (1 pick to 1 shovel), and 46.2% 
earth, most of which was heavy soil. The clearing and grub- 
bing, log culverts and excavation when charged up to the 
excavation cost 46^ cts. per cu. yd., or about $5,000 per 
mile. (The excavation alone probably cost about 40 cts. 
per cu. yd. The toughness of the earth and the presence 
of roots made the excavation expensive. Wages were prob- 
ably $1.25 per 10-hr. day.) The cost of one mile of fin- 
ished road on the heaviest part of the line was as follows: 

62.86 tons of 40-lb. rails, at $33 $2,074.38 

352 joints complete, at 0.55 cts 193.60 

6,200 lbs. spikes, at 2% cts 139.50 

3,000 cross ties, at 0.15 cts 450.00 

Freight on materials 159.00 

Tracklaying .... 400.00 

Grading 5,026.89 

Trestles (at $17 per M in place) 250.45 

Surveys, inspection, etc 400.00 

Total per mile $9,093.82 

Cost of Electric Railways. — In the Street Railway 
Journal, March 3, 1900, p. 237, Mr. John P. Brooks gives 
the following as the cost of a single track line built (1899) 
in Denver, Colo.: 

Per mile. 

941/2 long tons of 60-lb. T-rails, at $23.50 $2,220.75 

360 pairs of 60-lb. angles, at 40 cts 144.00 

1,080 lbs. track bolts, at 2% cts 29.70 

32 keg§ railway spikes, at $4.50 144.00 

360 copper or plate bonds, at 25 cts 90.00 

2,000 ft. B. M. plank for culverts 42.00 

2,640 Texas ties, at 50 cts 1,320.00 

180 ft. of curve and guard rails, at $1 180.00 

Hauling ties and rails 130.00 

Laying 1 mile of track 550.00 

1 mile No. trolley wire 325.00 



550 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Per mile. 

88 cedar poles in place and painted, at $4.25 $374.00 

Overhead work incidentals, including hangers, insu- 
lators and ratchets ($60) ; span wire ($40) ; and 
labor ($50) 150.00 

2,000 cu. yds. excavation for track trench, at 25 cts.. 500.00 



$6,199.45 
Add 5% for engineering 300.55 

$6,500.00 
Add 2 switches, at $250 500.00 

Total per mile .$7,000.00 

It is apparent that this line was not laid in a paved 
street. It will be noticed also that the price of rails, etc., 
was lower then than now (1905). The cost of power plant 
and buildings is not included, but may be estimated at 
$15,000 for a suburban line 5 miles long. 

Where paving of streets must be done, use the data 
given in the section on Roads and Pavements. 

In the Street Railway Journal, April 4, 1903, Mr. Ernest 
Gozenbach has an article describing a first-class, third- 
rail suburban line, 62% miles long. Including switches 
and sidings, the number of miles of single track is actu- 
ally 66. Of the 62% miles, 6% miles are laid in city streets. 

Excavation and embankment $ 96,000 

Bridges, abutments and culverts 91,050 

Two overhead railway crossings 64,000 

Ties, 2,640 per mile, at 55 cts 96,250 

Ballast, 2,200 cu. yds., per mile, at 80 cts 116,000 

Rails, 70-lb. per yd., at $31 per ton delivered 225,000 

Joints, spikes and bolts for 60-ft. rails 29,500 

Labor on track, 56 miles, at $600 33,600 

Labor in street track, 6% miles, at $1,800 11,700 

Farm and highway crossings 9,500 

Wire fences, 24,000 rods, at 73 cts 17,500 

Switches, special work, etc 21,000 

Bonds, 24,000, at 61 cts. in place 14,650 

Cross bonds and special bonding, at switches 2,000 

Third rail, 70-lb. per yd., 56 miles, at $36 ton, 131,000 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 551 

Insulators, spikes and bolts, at 62 cts. in place 18,000 

Joint plates, bolts and labor laying rail 9,800 

Bonds, 15,000, at 73 cts. in place 10,950 

Crossings and crossing cables 13,500 

Trolley in streets, single-track span construction . . 24,000 

Power station, 150 KW., at $120 per KW 180,000 

Power station building, at $11 per KW 16,500 

Transmission line, 55 miles, at $1,400 77,000 

Sub-station, freight and depot buildings 24,500 

Sub-station, railway apparatus 65,000 

Batteries 80,000 

Telephone line ♦ 9,000 

Block-signal system 35,000 

Stations and platforms 5,250 

Switch and platform-lighting circuit 4,000 

General office building 8,000 

Car shops, shop tools, etc 24,000 

Car bodies and locomotive body 49,000 

Trucks and air brakes 27,500 

Electric car equipment 76,000 

Lighting and power apparatus and supply systems 70,000 

Accidents, contingencies and insurance, 5% 89,000 

Administration, superintendence, office expenses, 

engineering, etc. 5% 89,000 

Total, at $29,750 per mile -..$1,963,750 

This estimate does not include allowance for right of way 
and legal expense. 

Cost of Erecting Trolley Poles. — A gang of 4 ftien 
digging holes and 6 men raising poles averaged 36 poles 
set per 10-hr. day, or 50 cts. per pole. In digging holes 
24 ins. diam. and 5 ft. deep for telegraph poles, using a 

crowbar and "spoon'* shovel, a man will dig only 3 holes 
a day in stiff clay, and 7 holes in average earth. 



SECTION XII. 
COST OF BRIDGE ERECTION AND PAINTING. 

The Weight of Steel Bridges.--The following formu- 
las, taken from Johnson's ''Modern Framed Structures," 
give the weight of steel in trusses and floor-beams of high- 
way and railway bridges. 

For a highway bridge with a roadway 16 ft. wide, de- 
signed to carry 100 lbs. live load per sq. ft., use the fol- 
lowing formula: 

w = 2 1 + 50. 

w =3 weight in lbs. per linear foot of bridge. 
1 = span in feet. 
For bridges of less or greater width of roadway than 
16 ft., subtract or add 15 lbs. per lin. ft. for each 2 ft. 
change in width. 

For railroad bridges designed according to Cooper's 
E-50 loading, the weight of steel per lin. ft. of bridge 
is as follows: 

For deck plate girders, 

w = 12 1 + 150. 
For through plate girders with beams and stringers, 

w == 12 1 + 500. 
For truss bridges, 

w = 7 1 + 650. 

Estimating Cost of Bridge Erection. — The cost of 
erecting steel bridges should be separated into two main 
items: (1) cost of falsework, and (2) cost of erecting the 
steel. Usually, however, engineers who have published 
cost data have unfortunately lumped these two items to- 
gether. 

The cost of falsework for any given bridge, and of ^ 



BRIDGE ERECTION AND PAINTING. 553 

traveler of given design can be estimated from the 
data given in the section on Piling and Timberwork, 

The labor cost of erecting the steel trusses should sel- 
dom exceed % ct. per lb., wages being $3 a day for bridge- 
men. Examples of the cost of steel erection work will be 
found in the section on Building Construction, and in the 
next paragraph. 

Cost of Bridge and Viaduct Erection.— Mr. Henry W. 
Hodges gives the following in ''Polytechnic," 1904: 

The steel frames of modern office buildings are usually 
erected by derricks high enough to erect two or three floors 
without shifting. The cost of erecting and riveting the 
steel is $10 to $15 per ton. The trusses of small roofs can 
be erected cheaply by the use of one or two gin poles. 

Plate girders for bridges up to 80-ft. span, and in some 
cases up to 120-ft., are usually shipped as single pieces. 
Short girders are skidded flat into position from the car 
and then turned on edge. Long girders may be lifted from 
the cars by gallows frames and lowered to position. The 
cost of erecting plate girders is 0.5 to 1 ct. per lb. 

Long span bridge trusses are usually erected on false- 
work consisting of pile bents and, if high, framed timber 
bents on top of the piles. It costs about $15 per M to 
build the timber falsework, exclusive of the cost of the 
timber. The cost of erecting steel pin-connected bridges 
is 0.7 to 1.2 cts. per lb. 

Draw bridges (swing) are generally erected on the pile 
fender or guard pier. As this fender is permanent and 
paid for by the owner, the cost of erecting draw bridgres 
would be less than fixed spans were it not for the extra 
cost of erecting the turn table. The cost of erecting draw 
spans varies from 1 to 1.2 cts. per lb. 

Viaducts are usually erected by the use of an overhang 
traveler. The Pecos Viaduct (Eng. News, Jan. 5, 1893) is 
2,180 ft. long, 321 ft. high, and has 23 supporting towers. 
The traveler had an overhang of 126 ft., and no falsework 
was used. The viaduct weighs 1,820 tons, and was erected 
by a force of 60 men in 118 working days. The cost of 
erection was 0.8 ct. per lb., of $16 per ton. 

Cost of Erecting Steel in N. Y. Subway.— The CQ3t 



554 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

of erecting the steel posts and girders in the N. Y. subway 
was as follows on one section where 4,300 tons were erected: 

Per ton. 

Labor trucking $1.47 

Labor placing and riveting 11.68 

Labor painting 0.90 

Materials for painting 0.70 

Materials for placing and riveting 0.90 

Power 0.30 

Total $15.95 

Iron workers were paid $4 for 8 hrs.; iron foremen, $5; 
painters, $2. There was 1 foreman to every 10 men. 

The contract price for erecting and painting was $13 a 
ton, so that money was lost by the contractor on this work. 
The men worked under difficulties, and with little energy. 

Cost of Pneumatic Riveting. — Mr. A. B. Manning 
gives the following data: 

One 12-HP. gasoline driven air compressor (Fairbanks, 
Morse & Co.); two galvanized iron water tanks; one gal- 
vanized iron gasoline tank; one large main reservoir; 
one small auxiliary reservoir; hose and fittings; cost 
mounted on car $1,073. Operating at 90 lbs. pressure this 
compressor furnished air for 3 pneumatic hammers, 2 
drills, 2 rivet forges, and 1 blacksmith forge, all working 
at one time. The 3 hammers and the 2 drills cost (in 
1899) $627. The cost of repairs for 16 months averaged 
$3 per month on this $1,700 plant. The cost of operating 
was as follows per day: 

15 gals, gasoline, at 11.2 cts $1.68 

Oil, waste, etc 0.12 

Depreciation (estimated on 20% basis, for 313 days) 1.09 

Repairs 0.11 

Total per day $3.00 

On the basis of running 3 rivet hammers, this is $1 per 
hammer for power. 



BRIDGE ERECTION AND PAINTING. 555 

Power for one hammer per day $1.00 

Oil for one hammer per day 0.12 

2 men driving rivets, at $2.40 4.80 

1 man heating rivets 2.20 

Total for one hammer per day $S.12 

A pneumatic riveter on bridge work averages 500 rivets 
per 10-hr. day for $8.12, or $1.62 per hundred rivets. On 
one day 700 rivets were driven, by using an additional 
man to take out fitting-up bolts, etc. The above costs are 
based upon the erection of 22 bridge spans, aggregating 
2,455 lin. ft. and 80,065 rivets. 

The cost of riveting by hand is as follows: 

2 men, at $2.40 $4.80 

2 men, at $2.20 4.40 

Total per gang per day $9.20 

Such a gang averages 250 rivets per day, which is equiva- 
lent to $3.68 per hundred rivets. 

Mr. F. S. Edinger states that with a 12-HP. gasoline 
driven compressor and an 80 cu. ft. air receiver, five long- 
stroke hammers were operated at one time without re- 
ducing the air pressure below 75 lbs. •The five hammers 
when driving 50 rivets (%-in. diam.) per minute are us- 
ing air only about 5% of the time. The same compressor 
will run 2 hammers and 2 drills at one time. The drills 
use more air than the hammers as they run uninterrupted- 
ly. The drills can be used for boring timber by inserting 
an auger in place of a drill; but the speed is 
not high enough for wood boring. Two men and a 
heater form a riveting gang and they drive twice as many 
rivets as three men and a heater drive by hand. The cost 
of fitting up and riveting on new steel bridges (all rivets 
%-in.) was 35 to 40% less than if the worli had been done 
by hand, and the work was done better. 

Cost of Tearing Down a Small Bridge. — A small high- 
way bridge of 35-ft. span, and roadway 25 ft. wide, con- 
tained 10 tons of iron in the trusses and 4,650 ft. B. M. 
in the flooring. The flooring was 3-in. oak plank laid on 



556 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

3 X 12-in. stringers spaced 2 ft. aparl, and two 8 x 14-in. 
stringers under an electric car track. It took 6 men and 
1 foreman 3 days to tear down and store the bridge, at 
a cost of $36. 

A wooden footbridge, 6 ft. wide and 100 ft. long over a 
creek, contained 4,000 ft. B. M. It took 8 men and a team 
3 hrs. to tear down and remove this structure, which was 
essentially a light temporary trestle floored with 3-in. 
plank. The cost was $1 per M for this tearing down. The 
same gang had originally erected this structure at a cost 
of $3.75 per M. 

Cost of Moving a 65 -ft. "Bridge and Neiv Abutments. 
— A steel highway pony truss bridge of 65-ft. span and 
16-ft. roadway had been erected upon timber pile abut- 
ments that had rotted badly. New abutments were built 
adjoining the old abutments, by driving 12- iron piles for 
each abutment and its wing walls. These piles were of 
old steel rails 30 ft. long, and were driven 20 ft. deep. A 
small pile driver operated by 5 men and 1 horse averaged 
8 piles per 10-hr, day, for 3 days. Then 1 day was spent 
in building a falsework, and 2 more days raising and shift- 
ing the bridge from its old abutments to the new. Thfe 
cost of pile driving was $30, or $1.25 per pile. The cost 
of building the falsework was $10, and the cost of moving 
the bridge was $20. 

Cost of Paint.— In Engineering News, June 6, 1895, Mr. 
Walter G. Berg, Chief Engineer of the Lehigh Valley R. R., 
has an excellent article on painting iron railway bridges, 
and the paints to select. He gives the following as to the 
cost of paints: 

Oxide of Iron. 

614 lbs. oxide of iron, at 1 ct $0.06 

5/6 gal. (6% lbs.) raw linseed oil, at 56 cts 0.47 

Cost of 1 gal. of paint $0.53 

Red Lead. 

20 lbs. red lead, at 5 cts $1.00 

% gal. (5% lbs.) raw linseed oil, at 56 cts 0.42 

Cost Of 1 gal. of paint ., $1.42 



BRIDGE ERECTION AND PAINTING, 557 

Graphite. 

3% lbs. graphite paste, at 12 cts $0.45 

% gal. boiled linseed oil, at 59 cts 0.45 

Cost of 1 gal. of paint $0.90 

Painting Data. — A gallon of iron oxide paint will cover 
400 sq. ft. of wood surface, or 500 sq. ft. of iron surface, 
first coat. It requires about two-thirds as much paint for 
the second coat as for the first; and half as much paint 
for the third coat as for the first. Further data will be 
found on page 558. 

A man, working 9 hrs. can paint (one coat) 2,000 sq. ft. 
of tin roof, or 1,000 sq. ft. of frame house, or 300 sq. ft. 
of bridge trusses. The shifting of scaffolds on house work 
accounts for the decreased time; and the smaller area of 
the surfaces of bridge trusses makes the work slower In 
bridge painting. 

Weight and Surface Area of Steel Bridges. — In En- 
gineering News, Feb. 6, 1896, Mr. C. E. Fowler, then Chief 
Engineer Youngstown Bridge Co., gives a table of the 
weights of iron highway and single track bridge trusses, 
and the corresponding areas of metal requiring painting, 
as determined ''by actual calculation in a large number of 
cases." I find by a study of the tables that they can be 
very simply expressed in rules or formulas, as follows: 
For a highway bridge divide the weight of metal in pounds 
by 7 to get the area of metal surface in square feet. This 
applies to highway bridges 16 ft. wide, calculated for a 
floor load of 90 lbs. per sq. ft., for all spans from 40 to 
300 ft. For a single track railway bridge, divide the weight 
of metal in pounds by 12 to get the area of metal surface 
in square feet. 

The weight in pounds of metal in a highway bridge is 
found by adding 50 to 2 times the span in feet ahd mul- 
tiplying this sum by the span in feet. Expressed in a 
formula this rule is w == 1 (2 1 + 50). 

The weight in pounds of metal in a single track railway 
bridge is found by adding 400 to 4.8 times the span in feet 
and multiplying this sum by the span in feet, w = 1 (4.8 
1 + 400). 



()5S BANDBOOK OF COST DATA 

The weights of railway spans are considerably greater 
now than in 1895, but the foregoing facts will be of value 
especially for highway bridges. Mr. Fowler gives the fol- 
lowing estimates of the area of metal surface covered by 
different kinds of paints: 

Area in sq. ft. covered by 

. one gallon. ^ 

Pirst coat. Second coat. 

Oxideofiron 500 700 

Red lead 700 1,000 

White lead 600 700 

Graphite 500 700 

Asphalt 300 500 

Carbonizing coating 1,000 1,500 

He adds that manufacturers give too large areas cov- 
ered by their paints; and that the above figures apply 
only to the best, finely ground pigments. 

Cost of Painting a Tin Roof. — In Engineering News, 
April 23, 1896, Mr. J. M. Braxton gives the following: 

Ah old tin roof was showing rust spots, most of the 
paint being worn off. The tin was first rubbed with pal- 
metto brushes and then swept clean. The area painted was 
151,000 sq. ft., requiring 563 gals, of paint for two coats, 
or 267 sq. ft. per gallon for the two coats. The paint was: 
396 gallons raw linseed oil. 
35 lbs. dryer. 

2,120 lbs. dry oxide of iron. 

This mixture yielded 563 gals, of paint. Each man aver- 
aged 1,920 sq. ft., or 220 sq. yds. per day of 9 hrs. painted 
with one coat. It took 158 man-days to paint the roof, not 
including foreman's time. 

Cost of Painting a Howe Truss Bridge. — The bridge 
was painted with two coats of paint costing $1 per gal- 
lon. One gallon covered 133 sq. ft, two coats thick, and 
a painter averaged 166 sq. ft., two coats thick, per 10 hrs., 
or 332 sq. ft. of one coat per day. The cost was, therefore, 
as follows: 

Cts. per Cts. per 

eq. ft. sq. yd. 

Paint, two coats 0.75 6.8 

Labor painting, two coats (17>^ cts. per hr.) 1.15 10.3 

Total 1.90 17.1 

Cost of Painting 6 R. R. Bridges.— Three spans pin- 



BRIDGE ERECTION AND PAINTING. 559 

connected Pratt truss bridges, each 145 ft. long, 14 ft. 
wide and 20% ft. high, were painted with one coat at a 
cost of $48 per span for labor. One span required 35 gals, 
of asphaltum paint costing 65 cts. per gal. The other 
spans received 27 gals, of carbon paint each, at $1.50 per 
gallon. 

A riveted Pratt truss bridge, 94 ft. long, 14 ft. wide and 20 
ft. high was given one coat of black carbon paint, 23 gals., 
at $1.50 per gal. The labor was $40. 

A double-intersection riveted lattice truss bridge, 96 ft. 
long, 14 ft. wide and 20 ft. high, was repainted with one 
coat of carbon paint, 26 gals., at $1.50 per gal. The labor 
cost $46. 

A single intersection lattice truss highway bridge (20- 
ft. roadway and two 8-ft. sidewalks), 106 ft. long, was 
painted with one coat of black carbon paint, 35 gals., at 
$1.25 per gal. The labor cost $59. 

Cost of Painting 6 R. R. Bridges and 2 Viaducts. — 

Mr. O. E. Selby, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1897, has a paper 
on the cost of painting the Louisville and Jeffersonville 
Bridge across the Ohio River. The work was begun June 
3, and finished Aug. 7, 1895. There was practically no 
traffic over the bridge during the work, which, of course, 
lessened the cost of painting; and the iron being new re- 
quired no great amount of cleaning. The force averaged 
about 50 men with 1 foreman, 1 assistant foreman and 1 
timekeeper. The men were mostly ordinary bridge men, 
erectors and carpenters, and were paid $2 a day of 10 hrs. 
Some few men painting sidewalk railings and other parts 
not hazardous were paid $1.50 a day. The paint was oxide 
of iron, and was used just as it came from the barrel, 
except for a little occasional thinning, equivalent to about 
% gal. per bbl. of paint. The cost of the paint was 67 cts. 
per gal. The best results were obtained with flat brushes 
costing $7.50 per doz., of which 19 doz. were used; 4 doz. 
steel brushes and 13 doz. whisk brooms were used for 
cleaning the iron. The total cost of the work was: Paint, 
$3,769; labor, $4,427; equipment, $301; accident insurance, 
$200; total, $8,697 distributed as follows: 



560 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Jeffersonville Approach and Span No. 1 (4,271 ft. longj 
1,762 tons). Per ton. 

0.62 gallon iron oxide paint $0.42 

Labor, $2 per 10 hrs 0.51 

Total per ton of 2,000 lbs $0.93 

Total per lin. ft $0.38 

This Jeffersonville approach is a viaduct having an aver- 
age height of 40 ft. and a length of 4,063 ft, all single 
track, except 1,000 ft, which is double track. Span No. 1 
is single track, 209 ft c. to c. The Jeffersonville approach 
had previously been painted with one ooat in Oct., 1892. 
The work of which costs are above given consisted in 
going over the viaduct, cleaning and painting all spots 
where rust had formed; then after this had dried the 
whole viaduct was given one coat. 

Louisville Approach (2,585 ft long; 1,012 tons). Per ton. 

0.90 gallon paint, first coat $0.61 

0.58 gallon paint, second coat 0.39 

Labor on first coat 0.72 

Labor on second coat 0.38 

Total per ton $2.10 

Total per lin. ft $0.82 

This Louisville approach is 2,585 ft. long, single track, 
and has an average height of 45 ft. It had been erected a 
year before it was painted, and had never been painted 
before. It received two coats throughout 

Bridge spans Nos. 5 and 6 (each 338 ft. c. to c; 

total weight 665 tons). Per ton. 

0.66 gallon paint, first coat $0.?4 

0.44 gallon paint, second coat 0.30 

Labor on first coat 0.47 

Labor on second coat 0.35 

Total per ton of 2,000 lbs >:$1.56 

Total per lin. ft. $1.53 



BRIDGE ERECTION AND PAINTING. 561 

Bridge spans Nos. 2, 3 and 4 (each span 546% ft. 

c. to. c; total, 2,768 tons). Per ton. 

0.50 gallon paint, first coat $0.33 

0.32 gallon paint, second coat 0.22 

Labor on first coat 0.32 

Labor on second coat 0.22 

Total per ton of 2,000 lbs $1.09 

Total per lin. ft $1.84 

All these bridge spans were single track, erected about 
a year before they were painted. All the iron had had a 
shop coat of linseed oil. All the spans were given two 
coats of paint throughout, except the inside of the top 
chords and end posts which received only one coat, as it 
was believed that this one coat in such a protected loca- 
tion would outlast t^ two coats on exposed work. 

Spans Nos. 5 and 6 were erected in the latter part of 
1893, while the other and longer spans were erected a year 
later, so that the rustier condition of Nos. 5 and 6 may 
account for their taking more paint. 

The labor cost of painting 5,700 lin. ft. of sidewalk rail- 
ings was $390, or $6.85 per 100 ft. This does not include 
the cost of the paint, which was a small item. Half of 
this railing was a lattice railing 4 ft. high; the other half 
was a gas pipe railing consisting of two lines of 1%-in. 
gas pipe. 

Cost of Painting 50 Plate Girder Bridges.— Mr. W. 
J. Wilgus gives the following data on the cost of repaint- 
ing 33 steel bridges on the Rome, Watertown & Ogdens- 
burg R. R. in 1896-8. The bridges were originally painted 
with two coats of "patent paint" that had failed within a 
year. The following costs include cleaning with wire 
brushes, and repainting with one coat of asphaltum-var- 
nish paint made of 4 lbs. lampblack ground in pure raw 
linseed oil, % gal. genuine asphaltum varnish, % gal. pure 
boiled linseed oil, and % gal. drying japan. This paint 
cost 60 to 80 cts. per gal., and 1 gal. covered 350 sq. ft. 
Labor cost $2 a day. 

The calculation of the exposed areas of many of the 
plate girder bridges showed that there were 100 sq. ft. for 
every ton of 2,000 lbs. 



562 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of painting 50 plata girder spans (av. length, 74 ft. J 
total weight, 1,884 short tons). Per ton. 

0.30 gal. paint $0,175 

Labor cleaning and painting 0.340 

Total per ton $0,515 

Cost of painting 5 truss spans (av. length, 155 ft.; total 
weight, 638 tons). Per ton. 

0.39 gal. paint $0,235 

Labor cleaning and painting 0.490 

Total per ton $0,725 

Cost of painting 11 spans of a viaduct (total length, 706 
ft; height, 88 ft; weight, 342 tons). Per ton. 

0.48 gal. paint $0.39 

Labor cleaning and painting 0.60 

Total per ton $0.99 

Cost of Cleaning and Painting 10 Bridges. — Mr. E. 

D. Graves gives the following data on the painting of 
light double triangular trusses in bridge spans from 80 to 
136 ft, the total length being 1,000 ft. painted in the sum- 
mer of 1897. The steel work had received one shop coat 
of iron oxide paint, and had been in place one year. The 
greater part of the surfaces was found to be scaled of£ 
and rusted. The surfaces were scraped with a steel 
scraper, or brushed with a steel wire casting-brush. The 
dust was removed with a whisk broom, and one coat of 
No. 38 Detroit Graphite paint applied, costing $1.10 per 
gallon, delivered. The floor beams and bottom chords be- 
ing most likely to rust, were painted a second coat The 
foreman received $3.50 per day, and had 8 to 12 men, at 
$1.75. These men were mostly laborers, except a few 
bridge men for the top work. The cost was as follows per 
ton of 2,000 lbs.: 
Cost of first coat: Per ton. 

0.94 gal. first coat on 202 tons $1.04 

Labor cleaning and painting 202 tons 1.44. . 

Total per ton, one coat $2.48 



BRIDGE ERECTION AND PAINTING. 563 

Cost of second coat (bottom chord and floor beams; : 

Per ton. 

0.85 gal. second coat on 100 tons $0.38 

Labor painting second coat 100 tons 0.58 

Total per ton of bottom chord and beams.. $0.96 
The total cost of paint and labor was $598, or nearly 60 
cts. per lin. ft. of bridge. 

Cost of Painting 48 Bridges and 2 Viaducts. — Mr. 

C. D. Purdon gives the following data: These bridges were 
new and painted with two coats of red lead. They had 
received one coat of oil at the shop. 

Cost per ton. . 

Paint. Labor. Total. 

Two deck girders, each 54 ft. (34.3 tons) f 0.80 $1.34 $2.14 

Pratt truss, 103 ft. (62.9 tons) 0.58 1.45 2.03 

Pratt truss, 180 ft. (161.4 tons) 0.82 1.27 2.09 

Six deck girders, each 54 ft. (105.2 tons) 0.65 1.12 1.77 

Iron viaduct; two 64 ft., two 48 ft., and two 32 

ft. deck girders (182.4 tons) 1.40 0.76 2.16 

Iron viaduct, eight 64 ft., and seven 32 ft. 

spans (471 tons) 1.00 0.66 1.66 

Pratt truss, dbl. track, 150 ft. (228.7 tons) 0.51 1.17 1.68 

The summary of the amount of lead and oil used on 
the above bridges is as follows: 

. Per ton. > 

Lbs. of lead. Gals, of oil. 

Deck girders (139.5 tons) 6.08 0.48 

Single track trusses (224.3 tons) 7.12 0.56 

Viaducts (653.3 tons) 13.80 0.44 

Summary of all(l, 245. 6 tons) 10.10 0.42 

The cost of cleaning and painting 17 spans over the Ar- 
kansas River is as follows: These bridges received two 
coats of red lead and oil, having been originally painted 
with iron oxide which was first cleaned off. The cost of 
cleaning off the old paint is included, and almost equaled 
the cost of applying the first coat of red lead. 
Cost of 9 spans (153 ft; weight, 810.6 tons): 
First coat: Per ton. 

7 lbs. red lead $0.49 

Labor 0.58 

Second coat: 

2.3 lbs. red lead 0.17 

Labor 0.25 

Total per ton $1.49 



564 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cost of 8 spans (three, 253 ft; four, 162 ft; one draw, 
370 ft; total weight, 1,451.2 tons): 

First coat: Per ton. 

6 lbs. red lead $0.42 

Labor 0.54 

Second coat: 

1.9 lbs. red lead 0.15 

Labor 0.26 

Total per ton $1.37 

The average of the above 17 spans was: 6.42 lbs. of lead 
and 0.23 gal. of oil per ton for the first coat; 2.04 lbs. of 
lead and 0.074 gal. of oil per ton for the second coat. 

The cost of repainting 13 spans with two coats of iron 
oxide was as follows: 

^Gallons. -N ^ Cost per ton. — ^ 

Paint. Oil. Paint. Labor. Total. 
200-ft. deck truss and two 60- ft. 

girders, dbl. track (475.6 tons). , . 128 60 $0.20 $0.62 $0.82 

Ponylattice, 92K«. (115 tons).... 30 10 0.31 0.33 0.64 
Three through spans, 150 ft. and 

302 ft. draw span (656.7 tons)... 335 122 0.36 0.68 0.99 
Three through spans, 150 ft. (313.3 

tons) 184 46 0.38 0.54 0.92 

Three through spans, 150 ft. (297.6 

tons) 130 30 0.28 0.54 0.82 

These 13 spans had originally been painted with iron 
oxide which was not cleaned off except at rusted spots. 

It will be noted that about % gal. of oil was used to thin 
each gallon of paint. 

The cost of repainting ten old bridges with one coat of 
iron oxide was as follows: 

^Gallons.— V Cost per ton. . 

Paint. Oil. Paint. Labor. Total. 

Double track truss, 126 ft. (176 tons) 75 25 $0.19 $0.55 $0.74 
Through plat© girder, 50 ft. (27.6 

tons) 15 3)4 0.34 0.34 0.68 

Six spans deck truss, 150 ft. (696.5 

tons) 280 62 0.25 0.51 0.76 

Deck plate girder, 70 ft. (30.4 tons) 12 ;... 0.20 0.22 0.44 
Through plate girder, 47 ft. (24.5 

tons)......... 17 .... 0.32 0.34 0.66 

These 10 spans had been originally painted with iron 
oxide which was not cleaned off except at rusted spots. 



BRIDGE ERECT 101^ AND PAINTING, 565 

It will be noted that the average of these ten spans is 
0.51 gal. of paint and oil per ton, for one coat work. 

Cost of Cleaning and Painting 4 Bridges, St. Louis. 

— Mr. N. W. Eayers gives the following data on painting 
railway bridges with one coat of carbon paint. This paint 
was ground especially for the bridge work, and came as 
"semi-liquid" taking about 1 gal. of oil to 1 gal. of ''semi- 
liquid." It was laid on thick. 

The St. Louis Merchants' Bridge is double track, three 
spans, each of bliy2 ft, trusses 75 ft. deep at center. It 
was erected in 1890, and had had one shop coat and one 
coat of iron oxide after erection. The metal was very 
rusty, and the cost of cleaning was quite lafge, but could 
not be separated from the cost of painting. The total 
cost of cleaning and painting these three spans in 1895 
was as follows: 

493% gals, boiled oil, at $0.58 ? 286.08 

552% gals, carbon paint, at $1.25 690.62 

Sundry supplies 69.96 

48 days' labor, at $2.50 120.00 

91.4 days' labor, at $2.25 205.65 

444.4 days' labor, at $2.00 888.80 

51.5 days' labor, at $1.00 51.50 

Total $2,312.61 

The cost per lin. ft. was, therefore, $1.49, and 0.69 gal. 
of paint, costing 93.3 cts. per gal., was required per lin. ft. 

The Ferry St. Bridge is a double track deck span, 126 
ft. resting on iron columns. It was cleaned and painted 
in 1895, at the following cost: 

32 gals, boiled oil, at $0.58 $18.56 

22 gals, carbon paint, at $1.25 27.50 

Labor 97.70 

Total, at $1.14 per lin. ft $143.76 

The Angelica St. Bridge is a through plate girder bridge, 
68-ft. span, having a total painted surface of 6,250 sq. ft., 



566 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

which required 1 gal. of paint for every 312% sq. ft. The 
cost was as follows: 

10 gals, boiled oil, at $0.58 $5.80 

10 gals, carbon paint, at $1.25 12.50 

Labor 22.00 

Total, at $0.59 per lin. ft $40.30 

The Elevated Structure, Merchants' Bridge, consists of 
steel columns supporting plate girder spans of 28 to 35 
ft, carrying a double track railroad. It was erected and 
painted in 1890, but in 1897 it was badly rusted and was 
repainted at a contract price of 57 cts. per ft. for 4,075 
ft. The actual cost to the contractor was as follows: 

Carbon paint and oil, one coat $ 748.13 

Labor for cleaning 657.67 

. Labor for painting 628.74 

Total, exclusive of foreman's time $2,034.54 

The St. Louis (Eads) Bridge was repainted in 1896. It 
consists of three arched spans of a total length of 1,524 ft., 
carrying a double track railway on the lower floor and a 
highway on the upper floor. The floor beams for the high- 
way are the struts for the wind truss. The bridge is 54 
ft. wide out to out. The metal was quite rusty, in places, 
requiring chipping to remove scale, especially the highway 
floor beams exposed to locomotive smoke. It was painted 
with one coat. The cost was $0.70 per ton distributed as 
follows: 

675 gals, boiled oil, at $0.35 $ 236.25 

650 gals, carbon paint, at $1.25 812.50 

Sundry supplies 52.55 

Labor, 130 days, at $2.50 325.00 

246 days, at $2.25 553.50 

955 days, at $2.00 1,910.00 

Total, at $2.55 per lin. ft $3,889.80 



SECTION XIII. 



COST OF RAILWAY AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS. 

RatioiLs for Men. Camping. — In McHenry's ''Rules for 
Railway Location" the following list of rations and sup- 
plies is given: The food is sufficient to support 14 men 
at least 30 days. The list is one used for surveying par- 
ties on the Northern Pacific Railway. 



400 lbs. flour. 

50 lbs. buckwheat. 

40 lbs. oatmeal. 

30 lbs. cornmeal. 

25 lbs. rice. 

10 lbs. tapioca. 

10 lbs. sago. 

10 lbs. barley. 

10 lbs. cornstarch. 

10 lbs. baking powder. 
3 lbs. soda. 

12 packages yeast cakes. 
150 lbs. sugar. 

20 lbs. salt. 

50 lbs. coffee. 

10 lbs. tea. 
5 gals, syrup. 

1 gal. vinegar. 
400 lbs. potatoes. 

50 lbs. beans. 
20 lbs. onions. 

2 cases (24 qts.) tomato 
2 cases corn. 

1 case peas. 
1 case pears. 

1 case cherries. 

2 cases peaches. 
1 case milk. 

1 case coal oil. 

2 lbs. mustard. 



1 lb. ground pepper, 
i/^-lb. ginger, 
i/^-lb. cinnamon. 
i/4-lb. allspice. 
%-lb. nutmegs. 

1 bottle lemon extract. 

1 bottle vanilla extract. 

6 bottles pickles. 

6 bottles catsup. 

8 bottles Worcester sauce. 
100 lbs. ham. 
100 lbs. bacon. 
25 lbs. dried beef. 
25 lbs. codfish. 
40 lbs. lard. 
25 lbs. cheese. 
60 lbs. butter. 

1 case cornbeef. 
50 lbs. dried apples. 
50 lbs. dried peaches. 
50 lbs. dried prunes. 
10 lbs. dried currants. 

1 box raisins. 

1 box crackers. 

1 box macaroni- 

1 box soap. 
12 boxes matches. 

1 box candles. 

2 lbs. lye. 

10 lbs. sal-soda. 



568 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 



The total net weight of food in this list is about 2,100 
lbs., or about 5 lbs. of food per man per day, on the basis 
of 420 man-days. This is certaiDly ample. In fact men 
can live on much less if concentrated food that swells on 
cooking is used. The following is a list used by the 
author on a 30-day camping expedition where every super- 
fluous pound of weight was cut out. 



Flour 

Oatmeal 

Bice 

Beans (dried) 

Sugar 

Salt 

Butter 

Bacon 

Baking powder . . 

Coffee 

Tea 

Dried prunes 

Pepper 

Condensed milk. 

Total . 



One man 


One man 


80 days 


1 day 


25 lbs. 


0.83 lb. 


8 " 


0.27 " 


4 " 


0.14 •• 


8 " 


0.27 - 


12 '* 


0.40 " 


1 " 


0.03 " 


2 " 


0.07 " 


10 " 


0.33 " 


1 " 


0.03 " 


2 " 


0.07 *' 


X" 


0.01 " 


2 " 


0.07 " 


)^" 


0.01 " 


3 cans 


0.10 " 


79 lbs. 


2.63 lbs 



This list furnishes 0.23 lb. nitrogenous food, 0.30 lb. fat, 
and 1.30 lbs. starch and sugar per man per day. Dr. 
Pavy (Encyclopedia Britannica) states that a laborer re- 
quires daily 0.25 lb. nitrogenous food, 0.10 lb. fat, and 1.18 
lbs. starch and sugar (carbohydrates). If the trip is to 
be a long one, 1% ounces of juice of lime per man per day 
should be taken to prevent scurvy, unless potatoes can be 
carried along. 

F. W. D. Holbrook, in Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc, 1883, p. 
180, gives the following rations for 20 men for 12 days, 
where all food has to be packed on the backs of men 
(1,040 lbs. food for 240 man-days): 



12 bottles prepared 
mustard. 

25 lbs. butter. 
170 lbs. ham. 

75 lbs. canned cornbeef. 

50 lbs. mess pork. 
300 lbs. flour. 



100 lbs. granulated sugar. 
50 lbs. brown sugar for 

syrup. 
10 lbs. tea. 
15 lbs. coffee. 
70 lbs. beans. 
25 lbs. rice. 



RAILWAY AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS. 569 

25 lbs. dried apples. i/^-lb. ground pepper. 

25 lbs. dried peaches. %-lb. ground ginger. 

50 lbs. prunes. 1 lb. ground cinnamon. 

25 lbs. raisins. 12 lbs. soap. 

10 lbs. currants. 15 lbs. candles. 

12 lbs. baking powder. 6 boxes matches (300 in 

10 lbs. salt. box). 

The U. S. Geological Survey ration list is as follows 
for 1 man for 100 days: 
100 lbs. fresh meat, including fish and poultry. 
50 lbs. cured meat, canned meat, or cheese. 
15 lbs. lard. 

80 lbs. flour, bread or crackers. 

15 lbs. cornmeal, cereals, macaroni, sago or cornstarch. 
5 lbs. baking powder or yeast cakes. 
40 lbs. sugar. 

1 gal. molasses. 
12 lbs. coffee. 

2 lbs. tea or cocoa. 

10 cans condensed milk, or 50 qts. fresh milk. 
10 lbs. butter. 

20 lbs. dried fruit, or 100 lbs. fresh fruit. 
20 lbs. rice or beans. 
100 lbs. potatoes or other fresh vegetables. 
30 cans of vegetables or fruit. 

4 ozs. spices. 

4 ozs. flavoring extracts. 

8 ozs. pepper or mustard. 

3 qts. pickles. 
1 qt. vinegar. 

4 lbs. salt. 

Eggs may be substituted for fresh meat in the ratio of 
8 eggs for 1 lb. of meat. Fresh meat and cured meat may 
be interchanged on the basis of 5 lbs. of fresh for 2 lbs. of 
cured. Dried vegetables may be substituted for fresh veg- 
etables in the ratio of 3 lbs. of fresh for 1 lb. of dried. 

This ration list weighs 5.3 lbs. per day per man, and it 
costs about 50 cts. per day per man. The list was based 
originally on the U. 9. army ration, but has received some 
modifications dictated by experience. 



570 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

Equipment for and Cost of Railroad Surveys. — Mr. 

F. Lavis, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Jan., 1905, has given* 
valuable information on railway surveying from which the 
following data have been abstracted: The work was done 
for the Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf Railroad (now part 
of the Rock Island System), in Oklahoma, Indian Territory 
and Northern Texas, under P. A. Molitor, Chief Engineer. 
The following is a list of the camp outfit: 

1 office tent with fly, 14 x 3 drafting and office tables. 

16 ft. 6 camp chairs. 

3 tents, 14 x 16 ft. Map chest with necessary 

1 cook tent, 16 x 20 ft. stationery, paper, etc. 

Dining Table. 

3 dozen agate ware dinner plates. 
3 dozen agate ware cups. 

2 dozen agate ware saucers. 
2% dozen steel knives. 

2% dozen steel forks. 

2% dozen German silver teaspoons. 

1% dozen German silver dessert spoons. 

1 dozen German silver tablespoons. 

% dozen tin salt boxes. 

% dozen tin pepper boxes. 

1/4 dozen round agate ware pans, 2 qt. 

% dozen round agate ware pans, 1 qt. 

1 dozen round agate ware pans, 1 pt. 

1 carving knife and fork. 

7 yds. oilcloth, 48 ins. wide. 

3 standard trestles. 

5 boards, 12 by 1% in. by 18 ft. (dressed). 

Cooking Utensils. 

1 No. 8, 6-hole, wrought- 1 small frying pan. 

iron range. 2 griddles. 

1 tea-kettle. 4 tin pans with covers, 1- 
1 large cast-iron pot. gal. each. 

1 small cast-iron pot. 2 stewpans. 

2 large frying pans. 1 3-gal. coffeepot. 



RAILWAY AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS. 571 

Cooking Utensils. 

1 gal. teapot. 1 chopping bowl. 
4 dripping pans. 1 bread board. 

6 baking tins for bread. 1 rolling-pin. 

12 tin pie plates. 1 biscuit cutter. 

2 butcher knives. 1 nutmeg grater. 

1 steel. 1 coffee mill. 

2 large meat forks. 1 spring balance. 

1 chopping knife. 6 galvanized iron buckets. 

1 meat saw. 6 tin dippers (one for each 

2 large iron spoons. tent and two in cook tent). 
1 soup ladle. 2 can openers. 

1 cake turner. 1 corkscrew. 

1 flour sieve. 1 broom. 

1 colander. 1 scrubbing brush. 

1 5-gal. tin "dishpan. 1 alarm clock. 

1 5-gal. tin bread pan with 1 table (same as drafting 
cover. tables). 



Miscellaneous. 
% dozen Dietz lanterns. 

3 large tin lamps (central-draft, round wicks). 
2 large galvanized-iron washtubs. 

1 washboard. 

4 Sibley stoves (4 lengths of pipe with dampers, 12 lengths 

of plain pipe). 

2 water kegs, 2 gal. each. 
6 washbasins. 







Tools. 


1 grindstone and 


fittings. 


4 chopping-axes. 


1 monkey wrench. 




% dozen axe handles. 


1 pick. 




1 bundle sail twine. 


2 shovels. 




% dozen sail needles. 


1 short crowbar. 




1 sail palm. 


1 hand-saw. 




10 assorted sizes wire nails. 


1 cross-cut saw. 




100 ft. manila rope, %-in. 


2 hand-axes. 







572 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Lunch Box. 
2 dozen agate ware dinner plates. 
2 dozen agate ware saucers. 
iy2 dozen steel knives. 
iy2 dozen steel forks. 
1% dozen German silver teaspoons. 
1% dozen German silver dessert spoons. 
1 2-gal. coffeepot. 

Each locating party was organized as follows: 

Locating engineer $150 to $175 

Assistant locating engineer 115 to 125 

Transitman 90 to 100 

Leveler 80 to 90 

Draftsman 80 to 90 

Topographers, two* 80 to 90 

Rodman 50 

Head chainman 50 

Rear chainman 40 

Tapemen, two* 30 

Back flagman 30 

Stake marker 30 

Axemen (three to five as necessary) 25 to 30 

Cook 50 

Cook^s helper 20 

Double teams and driver, furnish their own 

feed, driver boarded in camp 65 to 90 

Each man was supplied by the company with subsistence 
when in camp, but was required to provide himself with 
an army cot and sufiicient bedding, and advised to provide 
a substantial canvas covering for the latter, an ordinary 
wagon cover, costing from $3 to $5, being the most easily 
obtainable and most satisfactory. 

Most of the lines ran through a rather badly broken 
up, rolling country, with short cross-drainage, about 75% 
being wooded. Topography was taken 300 ft. on each side 
of the line, a hand level and rod being used, distances out 
were paced, and 5 ft. contours located and sketched. The 
average amount of grading was 100,000 cu. yds. per mile; 



♦ One of the topographers assisted by two tapemen, with a transit 
determined land lines and drainage areas. 



RAILWAY AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS, 573 

maximum grade, 0.5%; maximum curve, 2°. The cost of 
the surveys was as follows for 563 miles of preliminary 
and 188 miles of located lines: 

PRELIMINARY LINES 



Ph O 



87 days 



«8t-a 

04 



90 days 






111 days 






30 days 



Miles run and topography taken. . 
Miles run, no topography taken . . 

Total miles preliminary run 

Total number payroll days 

Average daily number of men 

Average miles per day per party. . 
Average daily cost, subsistence 

per man 

Average daily pay per man 

Daily cost for teams 

Contingencies 

Daily cost of party , 

Cost per mile 



145.8 

39.3 

185.1 

1380 

15.9 

2.12 

fO.37 
1.81 
6.00 
88.48 
41.72 
19.61 



166.3 

*i66.3* 
1323 
14.7 
1.85 

90.49 

2.03 

6.22 

112.95 

44.48 

24.07 



164.1 

16.0 

180.1 

2033 

18.3 

1.62 

$0.38 
1.66 
6.92 
91.84 
45.57 
28.08 



23.2 

3.6 

31.8 

635 

21.2 

1.06 

$0.58 
1.66 
12.87 
125.73 
64.61 
60.95 



LOCATED LINES 



Miles located 

Total number payroll days 

Average daily number of men . . . 
Average miles per day per party. 
Average dally cost subsistence . . 

Average daily pay per man 

Daily cost for teams 

Contingencies 

Daily cost of party 

Cost per mile 



o 






65 days 



56.0 
1400 

21.5 
0.86 

$0.37 

1.72 

6.69 

143.36 

53.90 

62.57 



d 
(^ 



37 days 



37.8 
709 
19.0 

1.02 
$0.39 
1.61 
5.75 
46.76 
45.22 
44.33 






o '^ 
P4 ^ 



c8 
P4 



8 days 48 days 66 days 



7.6 
151 
19.0 

0.95 
$0.39 

1.61 

5.39 
15.70 
45.12 
47.50 



42.6 
1498 

31.2 1 
0.89 

$0.40 
1.71 

10.33 
196.00 

80.29 

90.47 



39.2 
1283 

19.4 
0.59 

$0.45 

1.60 

6.76 

133.84 

48.54 

81.72 



574 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The preliminary lines run by Party No. 1 were over a 
severe country, involving the heaviest construction work 
on the whole line. Party No. 3 also had much difficulty 
in getting a grade between certain points. Party No. 2 
had the lightest country. Party No. 4 worked only a short 
time and the cost of moving a long distance from other 
work is included. It is probable that the cost of work 
done by this party was really about 60% more than the 
others per mile, instead of 100% more. 

On the locating work. Party No. 1 had an expensive 
sounding party consisting of a man in charge, 4 or 5 la- 
borers and a team. Parties Nos. 2 and 3 were combined, 
after each had run a short distance of located line sepa- 
rately, which increased the unit cost of the located line, 
as shown. 

The total cost of 188 miles of located line was $192 per 
mile of located line, and this includes the cost of running 
the preliminary lines. 

Cost of Railway Surveys. — In making a railway sur- 
vey along the Columbia River, in open rolling country, 
my records show that a topographical party, consisting 
of 1 topographer and 2 rodmen, averaged 1% miles a day, 
taking a strip 400 ft. wide, contours 5 ft. apart. A hand- 
level and tape were used. In this same country a leveler 
and rodman could readily run 6 miles of profile levels in 
a day, although it was safer to count on 4 miles. 

On another similar survey in Southern New York State, 
in comparatively level country, a transitman, two chain- 
men and a stake artist, averaged 2 miles of transit line 
per 8 hrs. Station stakes were set every 100 ft. This 
same party, later, took a belt of topography 500 ft. wide, 
at the rate of 1^^ miles a day, setting a transit up at each 
station and taking telemeter readings for distance and 
level readings for elevation with long bubble of transit. 

The cost of a preliminary railroad survey, near Lake 
Erie, was as follows, using stadia measurements: 

Chief of party .^. . .$5.00 

Transitman 3.00 

Recorder 3.0O 

5 rodmen, at $2 10.00 

Total salaries per day $21.00 



kAlLWAY AND TOPOGRAPHtC SURVEYS. 575 

This party ran 46 miles in 30 days, several of which 
were stormy, and they took a belt of topography 800 ft. 
wide. The cost was about $14 a mile, or $90 a square mile 
for the field work. 

Using the chain method it took a party 24 days to run 
45 miles. 

In Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 31, p. 81, Mr. M. L. Lynch 
states that one mile of line a day is a fair average in 
partly timbered country, for preliminary work. He gives 
the average cost of surveys at $60 a mile of located line. 

Mr. Kenneth Allen states that in Kansas prairies he 
ran 312 miles of stadia line in 5.7 months, or 2.1 miles 
per day, a party costing as follows per day: 

Transitman $6.00 

Leveler 4.00 

2 rodmen, at $2.50 5.00 

Axman 2.00 

Teamster and team 3.00 

Total per day $20.00 

The cost was $11 a mile. Bench levels were run ahead of 
the transit. The best day's run was 8 miles. 

The Cost of Transit Lines in Heavy Timber. — In 

running transit lines through the dense timber of West- 
ern Washington, for roads and railways, I have found that 
a party of 6 men (consisting of a transitman, two chain- 
men, two axmen and a flagman, who also served as an 
axman) averaged about 1,800 ft. of line run per ten hours. 
It was exceptional that 2,000 ft. were averaged even for 
two or three days. No trees more than a foot in diameter 
were chopped; but the growth of great firs and cedars 
(occasionally one was 10 ft. in diameter), and the mass 
of fallen timber under foot made the advance slow. Where 
the timber was not so dense, it was possible to run from 
3,000 to 5,000 ft. a day, setting station stakes every 100 
ft. In running a traverse along a country road, where 
there was do tree-chopping at all, the same party would 
run 6 miles a day. 

In running profile levels over these transit lines, a lev- 
eler and rodman would average 4,000 ft. a day in rough 



576 HANDBOOK OF CO^T DATA. 

and densely wooded country; and 6,000 ft. in wooded 
country where the fallen timber did not retard walking 
so much. In all cases the actual time either on transit 
or level work averaged 8 hrs. per day, and about 2 hrs. 
per day were consumed in going to and from camp. 

The foregoing records apply to lines aggregating several 
hundred miles in length, and are given partly from mem- 
ory as my original detailed notes were lost in a fire. 

Cost of Topographic Survey for 160-Acre Park.— 

In the State of Washington the author was in charge of 
a survey for a small city park of 160 acres. The work 
was done in August, 1892, with a party of 5 men, whose 
daily wages were as follows: 

Transitman $5.00 

Recorder 3.00 

2 chainmen, at $2.50 5.00 

1 axman 2.0O 

Total per day $15.00 

This party was engaged 26 days in field work. In addi- 
tion, a draftsman and computer was engaged for 40 days 
reducing the notes and plotting the map to a scale of 100 
ft. to the inch, contours 10 ft. apart. The cost of the sur- 
vey and map was, therefore, as follows: 

Field work, 26 days, at $15 $390 

Oflice work, 40 days, at $3 120 

Total, 160 acres, at $3,20 $510 

This is at the rate of $2,040 per sq. mile. This high cost 
was due to the roughness of the ground and to the fact 
that about half the area was densely timbered. The area 
surveyed was a hill about 350 ft. high, cut up by a number 
of gulches. A traverse line, 2 miles long, was first run 
to enclose the hill, station stakes being set every 100 ft., 
using a tape and transit. Then 10 parallel cross-lines were 
run along ridges through the woods over the hill, using 
tape and transit. The aggregate length of these cross- 
lines was 3 miles. Profile levels were taken with a Y-level 
along all the transit lines. Contours were located by means 



RAILWAY AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS, 577 

of the stadia, the transit being set upon hubs on 
the transit lines. The density of the timber great- 
ly retarded the stadia work, due to the axe work 
necessary. Were I to repeat this work, I should run a 
traverse around the area as before, chaining and level- 
ing; then all the necessary cross-lines over the hill 
would be run, using the stadia. Where woods are heavy it 
is necessary to run such cross-lines close together. I 
should increase the number of axmen, and have rodmen 
also serve as axmen. 

Cost of Topographic Survey of St. Louis. — In Engi- 
neering News, Oct. 31, 1891, Mr. Oliver W. Connet gives 
the following: The area covered by triangulation was 
30 sq. miles, the average length of the sides of the tri- 
angles being 1% miles. About 92% miles of precise levels 
were run in duplicate at a cost of $30 per mile, four benches 
per mile. The stadia method was used for topography, 
contours being 3 ft. apart, about 300 points being located 
by a party in a day. The party consisted of 1 topographer, 
1 recorder, 3 stadia men, and 1 utility man. The average 
was 3.65 points per acre. The time of a party occupied 
in field work for 23% sq. miles was: Triangulation, 62 
days: precise levels, 114 days; topography, 248 days; total, 
424 days. The cost was: 

Triangulation $1,812 or 11% 

Precise levels 2,762 or 16% 

Topography 6,060 or 36% 

Office work (reduction of notes and plot- 
ting) 6,266 or 37% 

Total $16,900 or 100% 

This is equivalent to $725 per sq. mile, or $1.13 per acre. 
The average cost of the party per day, including trans- 
portation, instruments, etc., was: 

Triangulation $29.25 

Precise levels 24.25 

Topography 24.50 

Cost of a Stadia Survey, Baltimore. — Mr. R. A. Mac- 
Gregor, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 44, p. 112, gives the 



578 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

following on the cost of a stadia survey of the City of 
Baltimore. Md. The map was plotted on a scale of 20O 
ft. to the inch, and fences, roads, houses (with some de- 
tails of houses), 5-ft. contours, wooded and cultivated areas, 
creeks, etc., were shown. Everything was plotted in the 
field. The average error of closure was 1 in 700. The 
average number of shots was 6,400 per sq. mile. The num- 
ber of shots per day averaged 180, the maximum was 349, 
all the plotting and sketching being done in the field. The 
shots were taken and recorded by the recorder, and plotted 
by the draftsman, who stood nearby; the topographer in 
charge did the sketching. The cost of this field work 
alone was $850 per sq. mile for an area of 33.3 sq. miles. 

Cost of Topographic Survey, Westcliester Co., N. Y, 

— Mr. G. L. Christian, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 44, 
p. 115, gives the cost of making a survey in July, 1896, of 
a 57-acre tract of land in Westchester County, N. Y. Three- 
fourths of the tract Avas wooded, with much thick under- 
brush. The land was much broken, having a total rise 
of 150 ft., with slopes of 2% to 40%. The transit lines 
(12,750 ft.) covered the controlling points, stakes being 
set every 50 ft., and profile levels taken with Y-level. 
From these lines, with a hand level and tape, the 5-ft. 
contours were located. The map was plotted on a scale 
of 100 ft. to the inch. The cost per acre was as follows: 

Running transit lines $0.40 

Running Y-levels 0.19 

Contours with hand level 0.53 

Stakes O.07 

Plotting transit lines 0.13 

Plotting contour lines 0.15 

Total per acre $1.47 

This is at the rate of $940 per sq. mile. 

Ciost of Topographic Survey Near Baltimore. — Mr. 

Kenneth Allen, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 44, p. 113, 
gives the following relative to the cost of stadia surveys 
made for the Baltimore Sewerage Commission: 



RAILWAY A\D TOPOGBAPRIC .^rRTEYS. 579 

Survey I II III lY V 

Contour interval 5 ft. 5 ft. 5 ft. 2.5 ft. 2.5 ft. 

Scale of map 1"=800' l''=800' l''=400' l''=200' l''=200' 

Area, square miles.. 2.04 2.75 4.83 0.823 0.733 

Area, timbered 47% 27% 

Area, water surface 3% 12% 18% 

Area, per day, water 

surface 0.157 0.131 0.079 0.052 0.052 

Salaries per sq. mile $54.90 §78.00 $140.20 $323.61 f 256.21 

Expenses " " 11.91 16.49 28.54 30.73 13.50 

Costper sq. mile.... $66.81 $94.49 $168.74 $354.34 $269.71 

These costs do not include mapping done in the office, 
but do include maps made in the field. In surveys I. and 
V. the ground had gentle slopes; in TIL the range of 
elevation was 125 ft., but in the other areas it did not ex- 
ceed 40 ft. Comparing I. and IV. shows the increased cost 
where 2.5-ft. contours are located. Comparing I. and II. 
shows the economy of reading bearings with a compass 
(instead of with a vernier) and setting up on alternate 
points which was done in survey I. 

Mr. Kenneth Allen, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 30, 
p. 614, gives the following data: A stadia survey made 
for the Philadelphia Water Dept, in 1884, covered 446 square 
miles and occupied 162 days field work in the Perkiomen 
Water Basin, in Bucks, Montgomery and Lehigh Counties. 
The contours were 10 ft. apart plotted on a scale of 400 
ft. to the inch. All roads, buildings and timber outlines 
were shown. The party consisted of 1 transitman and 
1 rodman; the average area covered per day taking notes 
in the field was 0.434 square mile; the average area cov- 
ered per day plotting in the field was 0.31 square mile. 

On a survey in the Connellsville coke region, a survey 
similar to the above, but more detailed and plotted to a 
scale of 600 ft. to the inch, contours 10 ft. apart, cover- 
ing an area of 168 square miles, cost $116 per square mile, 
including the location of farm boundaries, coal outcrops 
and areas, and the reduction of all previous surveys to the 
same scale. The cost of the field work on the topography 
alone was, however, only $40 per square mile, or about 
one-third the total cost. The cost of engraving and pub- 
lishing was about $30 per square mile more. 

Cost of Three Stadia Topographic Surveys. — Mr. F. 

B. Maltby, in Jour. Assoc. Eng. Soc, 1896, has an article 



580 * HAi\^DBOOK OF COST DATA. 

on "Methods and Results of Stadia Surveying," from which 
the following abstracts have been made: 

A party should consist of an observer, a recorder, and 
2 to 4 rodmen. A good observer in open country can locate 
500 points a day for a map of 500 ft. to the inch. This 
means about 5% or 6 hrs. of actual observing, and gives 
an average of 1% shots per minute. Two men using the 
Colby protractor (one calling off and one plotting) plotted 
216 shots per hour, as the average of 25l^ hrs. 

A stadia line, 15 miles long, over which levels were run, 
checking on each stake, showed discrepancies between con- 
secutive stakes as high as 0.2 ft., but the total error for 
the 15 miles was less than 1 ft. 

The cost of stadia surveys varies widely. The topograph- 
ical survey of Baltimore, for topography alone, excluding 
triangulation and precise levels, cost $1.50 per acre. The 
scale of the map is 200 ft. per in., and all buildings, streets, 
alleys, etc., are located. The cost of the topography of 
the survey of St. Louis was 73 cts. per acre, scale of map 
the same, but few buildings and few street corners were 
located. A topographical survey of 3,000 acres, near Madi- 
son, 111., in 1893, cost 50 cts. per acre including mapping; 
scale was 400 ft. per in., and all buildings, fences, railroads, 
etc., were located. 

Several different tracts of land near St. Louis, of 100 to 
200 acres, were surveyed for 20 to 40 cts. per acre. In these 
cases a scale of 400 ft. per in. and a 2-ft. contour interval, 
and only the configuration of the ground were required. 

A survey of 9,300 acres in Southwest Texas, in 1894, was 
made; 2-ft. contours; and 400 ft. per in. scale; ground was 
rolling and partly covered with brush; condition favor- 
able; cost, 7 cts. per acre. 

Topographical work on the Mississippi River, in 1891, 
cost $36 per sq. mile; on the Missouri River, in 1895, $31 
per sq. mile, or 5 to 5% cts. per acre. Scale was 1,000 ft. 
per in., contours 5 ft. apart, all buildings, roads, fences, 
limits of culture, etc., located. This cost includes a sys- 
tem of tertiary triangulation, but does not include map- 
ping. 

Cost of Surveys, Erie Canal. — In Engineering News, 
June 28, 1900, Mr. D. J. Howell describes in detail the 



RAILWAY A^D TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS, 581 

methods of making surveys for the Mohawk Ship Canal, 
90 miles along the Mohawk Valley from the Hudson River 
westward to Herkimer. The work was done by stadia par- 
ties, consisting of 1 chief, 1 observer, 1 recorder and 4 
rodmen. The area mapped was 47,400 acres, of which 6,600 
are river. The average cost was 86 cts. per acre, including 
soundings of the river, field and office work, but exclud- 
ing test pits and borings. Contours were 2 ft. apart; map 
scale 1 in 2,500. A cross-country survey, 25 miles long, 
embracing 7,600 acres (no villages or cities), cost 27 cts. 
per acre for the field notes and the reduction of the notes 
ready for plotting. The cost of the plotting was estimated 
to be about 23 cts. per acre more, making the total cost 
about 50 cts. per acre. The men were well trained and 
the weather was favorable on this 25-mile stretch. 

Mr. William B. Landreth, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 
44, p. 92, discusses the methods and cost of stadia topo- 
graphic surveys made to determine the location of reser- 
voirs and conduit lines for the Rome level of the Deen 
Waterway on the Oswego-Mohawk-Hudson Route. The 
surveys were made between Aug. 1, 1898, and June 1, 1899, 
scarcely any time being lost from bad weather. A party 
consisted of 1 engineer in charge, 1 transitman, 1 recorder, 
3 or more stadia rodmen, 2 or more axmen, 1 draughtsman, 
and 1 computer. Each rodman was given a particular class 
of work, one following streams, another taking roads, an- 
other woods, and so on. When convenient all rodmen 
kept on the same side of the transit. Contour intervals 
were 10 ft. on the Salmon River and the Black River sur- 
veys, and 5 ft. on the Fish Creek line. At the close of each 
day the field party reduced the stadia notes. The scale of 
the Salmon River and the Black River maps was 1:10,000, 
and of the Fish Creek map, 1:5,000. About 65% of the Sal- 
mon River area is covered with small second growth tim- 
ber and swamps. The country is rough. The Black River 
Valley, between the villages of Carthage and Lyons Falls 
was surveyed up to the 790-ft. contour. Only 25% of the 
area is wooded, and the country is not very rough. The 
Fish Creek Valley, from 2 miles above Williams town, to 
2 miles below Taberg, a distance of 21 miles, was surveyed, 
the survey covering the valley and a portion of the side 



582 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

slopes to ^n elevation of 75 ft. above the creek. The 
ground was mostly grazing and farm land, 40% of which 
was timbered. The cost of the three surveys, including 
finished maps, traveling expenses, etc., was as follows: 

Salmon Black Fish 

River River Creek 

Area, square miles 15 85 19 

Set-ups 771 600 451 

Shots 3,838 11,166 11,776 

Square miles per day 0.32 1.81 0.45 

Field work per square mile 5^66.00 $16.50 $54.00 

Map work per square mile 14.00 7.00 25.00 

Total per square mile $80.00 $28.50 f 79.00 

Note. — The cost of the base line surveys for the Salmon 
River and Fish Creek work, and for one-third of the Black 
River, is not included in the costs above given; the costs 
include no leveling, but only the stadia field work and map- 
ping, excepting on the Black River where base line and 
leveling costs for two-thirds the territory are included. 

Cost of U. S. Deep Water-wray Survey, N. Y. — Mr. A. 
J. Himes, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 44, p. 105, gives 
the following data on the U. S. Deep Waterways Surveys 
for a 30-ft. canal along the Oswego and Mohawk Rivers, 
a distance of 91 miles. A sufficient number of stadia read- 
ings was taken to develop 2-ft. contours. About 83% of 
the area was mapped on a scale of 1:5,000; the other 17%, 
on a scale of 1:2,500. There were 12 sq. miles of soundings 
made in Oswego Harbor and Oneida Lake, and plotted; and 
an area of about 78 sq. miles of Oneida Lake and Oswego 
Harbor was determined by triangulation. There were, 
besides, 121 sq. miles of land topography taken. All build- 
ings, roads, railroads, property lines, streams, orchards, 
swamps, etc., were located. A stadia party consisted of 
1 instrumentman, 1 recorder and 3 rodmen, with sometimes 
1 laborer for cutting brush or rowing a boat. Each night 
the party reduced the stadia notes and calculated the co- 
ordinastes. The error of closures was readily kept within 
1 in 700; and errors in elevation seldom exceeded 1 ft, 
being usually less than 0.5-ft. Sights 2,000 ft. long were 
often taken. Charts were found to be much better than 
tables for stadia reductions. The work was begun 
Oct. 23, 1897, and finished Nov. 5, 1898, In no month were 



i 



RAILWAY AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS. 583 

more than 5 days lost on account of bad weather. The 
average number of readings was 1,440 per sq. mile. The 
minimum average area covered per day by one party on 
a single piece of work was 0.058 sq. mile. The maximum 
was 0.257 sq. mile. The average for the whole survey was 
0.123 sq. mile per party per day. The cost was as follows 
per sq. mile: 

Field work $179 

Mapping 101 

Total per sq. mile $280 

This is exclusive of swamps, and lakes not sounded. 

Cost o£ Government Topographic Surveys. — Mr. Mar- 
cus Baker, in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 30, p. 619, gives 
the cost of Government topographic surveys in many 
European countries^ to which the reader is referred. The 
U. S. Geological Survey of New Jersey was begun in 1877 
and finished in 1887, covering an area of 7,894 square miles, 
with contours 10 and 20 ft. apart. The cost was $6.93 per 
square mile, which includes all expenses in producing a 
map ready for the engraver. The engraved map is on a 
scale of about 1 mile per inch. A similar survey of Mas- 
sachusetts, made 1884-1888, contour interval 20 ft, cost 
$13 per square mile. A similar survey of Rhode Island, 
made 1888-1889, cost $9 per square mile. A similar survey 
of Connecticut, 5,004 square miles, made 1889-1890, on a 
scale of 1 mile per inch, 20-ft. contours, cost $9.80 per square 
mile for map ready for engraver. 

A topographic map of the banks of the Mississippi 
River, from Cairo to the Gulf of Mexico, was completed 
by the Government in 1884, at a cost of $51 per square 
mile for 1,954 square miles of land and water surface. The 
manuscript map was on a scale of 1:10,000, embracing the 
river and a strip of land % mile wide on each side. The 
river was carefully sounded. 

Mr. Baker gives estimates of the cost of surveys made 
by the Coast Survey, but these estimates are strongly dis- 
puted, moreover they are of minor value to engineers in 
general practice, so the reader is referred to the Transac- 
tions for the data. 

The N. Y. State Engineer's Report, 1897, gives the cost 



584 , HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

of topographical surveys, for the Dept. of the U. S. Geol. 
Survey, as follows per square mile, contours 20 ft. apart, 
and -map on a scale of about 1 mile to the inch: 

Sq. mile. 

Triangulating (1,370 sq. miles) $2.00 

Topography 8.70 

Office work 0.60 

$11.30 

The ^tal cost of 15,118 sq. miles, for field and office 
work, had been $11.06 per sq. mile. A table giving the 
cost of 2,200 sq. miles shows a range of $4.35 to $25 per 
sq. mile, the average being $10.05 for field and office work, 
of which $8.43 was the cost of field work. The cost of office 
work ranged from $1.15 to $4.05 per sq. mile, and averaged 
$1.62. 

Cost of Sounding Through Ice. — In Engineering News, 
Oct. 11, 1894, Mr. Joseph Ripley describes the construction 
and use of an ice boring machine, operated by bevel gear, 
for boring 3-in. holes through ice. Before the use of this 
machine, holes were chopped by axes at a cost of about 
8 cts. per hole through 2 ft. of ice. With the machine, 
operated by two men, the average time was less than % 
min. per hole, through 26 ins. of ice, overlaid by 2 ft. of 
snow, including all delays. The time of actual boring was 
about 8 seconds per hole. The sounding party consisted 
of 1 chief, recording soundings, 2 men sounding, 6 men 
operating three boring machines, 2 men moving tag lines 
and marking places for holes, 3 men shoveling away snow 
after holes were bored, 1 gage observer and 1 cook. Such 
a party averaged 3,000 holes per day of 8 hrs. at a cost 
of $1,000 per month, the working day being 8 hours. With 
25 working days in a month, the cost is 1% cts. per hole. 

In U. S. Eng. Report, 1903, Vol. 10, Part 2, p. 1896, the 
following is given: 

An ice boring machine will bore a 2%-in. hole through 
2 ft. of solid ice in 5 sees. A party can take 300 soundings 
per hr. through ice 2 ft. thick, in water 23 ft. deep, holes 
spaced 10 ft. x 50 ft. The best record for 8 hrs. was 2,749 
soundings, ice being 13 ins. thick. The cost of soundings 
was 3 cts. each for field work, including locating the holes. 



SECTION XIV. 
COST OF MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES. 

The Cost of Fences. — A barbed wire fence was built 
under the following specifications: 

"Posts to be of oak or tamarack, 5 ins. diameter and SY^ 
ft. long, spaced 16i^ ft. apart, c. to c, and set 3% ft. deep 
in the ground. The height of fence to be 4 ft. 9 ins., 
formed of four lines of 4-barb wire, spaced 12, 14, 15 and 
16 ins. apart measured from the ground up." 

Per mile. 

350 posts, including braces, at 10 cts $35.00 

1,500 lbs. 4-point barbed wire, at 5 cts 75.00 

40 lbs. staples, at 5 cts 2.00 

Labor 43.00 

Total $155.00 

This 10 cts. per post was a very low price, due to the 
fact that posts were cut from trees near the work. Posts 
are frequently 5 to 10 cts. per lin. ft. of post, where they 
are imported by rail. 

Where rail fences are built, the posts are usually spaced 
8 ft. apart c. to c, and set at least 3 ft. deep. The fencing 
specified by the Mass. Highway Commission consists of 
cedar or chestnut posts, not less than 6 ins. diam. and 6^/^ 
ft. long, set 3 ft. in the ground, and spaced 8 ft. c. to c, 
bark peeled off. A top rail, 4x4 ins., and a side rail, 
2x6 ins., are specified to be of dressed spruce; and both 
rails are notched into the posts and spiked. The fence is 
painted with one coat of white lead and oil. The usual 
contract price for such a fence in Massachusetts is 15 cts. 
per lin. ft., or $890 per mile. There are 660 posts, and 
12,300 ft. B, M. of spruce per mile. 



586 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

The wire fences of the Louisville & Nashville Ry. have 
posts 7 ft. long, with seven wires spaced 4, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 
and 12 ins. from the ground up. For one mile of fencing 
the following materials and labor are required: 

Per mile. 

3 barbed hog wires (7.7 lbs. per 100 ft.) 1,218 lbs. 

2 barbed cattle wires (7.14 lbs. per lOt) ft.) 754 lbs. 

2 plain ribbon wires (6.66 lbs. per 100 ft.) 704 lbs. 

\ Total wire per mile 2,676 lbs. 

Staples 49 lbs. 

Posts, 10 ft. apart 528 

Bracing, 1 x 6-in. yellow pine, ft. B. M 440 

Labor $105 

In soft soil a good workman, using an 8-in. post hole 
digger, will dig 100 post holes, 2 ft. deep, per day of 10 hrs. 

Cost of a Gas Pipe Hand Railing. — A gas pipe hand 
railing for a small stone-arch bridge was made of three 
lines of 1%-in. pipe rails and posts. The weight of the 
pipe was 800 lbs. for 100 lin. ft. of railing (50 ft. on each 
side of the bridge). The cost was as follows: 

100 lin. ft. of railing ready to erect $65.00 

Hauling 1% miles 0.60 

1 qt. asphaltum paint 0.20 

Paint brush 0.20 

9 lbs. sulphur, at 8 cts 0.72 

Iron kettle to melt sulphur in 0.40 

Labor erecting railing, 17 hrs., at 35 cts 5.95 

Labor erecting railing, 2 hrs., at 15 cts 0.30 

Total for 100 ft. of railing $73.37 

The principal cost of erecting was the drilling of 48 bolt 
holes (l^ X 2 ins.) in the stone coping. The bolts that 
passed through the cast-iron post bases were held with 
sulphur. The posts were made of 1%-in. gas pipe, crosses 
and tees. The 1%-in. pipe measured about 2 ins. out- 
side diameter, which is a good size for hand railing. 

On another job 100 lin. ft. of hand railing were built 
along an embankment. The railing was made of 3 lines 



C0S7' OF MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES. 587 

of %-in. gas pipe (1-in. diam. outside) made as above de- 
scribed, except that each post was fastened to an oak 
plank buried in the ground, and an inclined brace ran from 
each post to the plank. The cost of 100 lin. ft. of railing 
was: 

100 lin. ft. railing and posts $37.50 

Labor erecting 31.50 

Total $69.00 

Cost of a Brush and Stone Revetment. — Mr. W. R. 

DeWitt gives the following on building a brush and stone 
revetment along 8,2*00 ft. of river bank, on the Missouri 
River, near Cambridge, Mo. The work was done by com- 
pany laborers for the Chicago & Alton Ry., in 1901, and 
is similar to nearby Government work which had proven 
satisfactory for 12 years previous. The bank was first 
graded down with a hydraulic giant having a 1^/4 -in. noz- 
zle, water being Supplied by a pump 'at 100 lbs. pressure. 
A grading force consisting of 1 steam-engineer, 1 fireman, 
1 nozzleman, 1 watchman and 2 laborers graded 100 lin. 
ft. of bank, moving about 800 cu. yds. per day. The noz- 
zle was started at the top of the bank and moved down 
the slope to the water's edge, cutting a true slope. 

The grading was followed up closely by the gang weav- 
ing brush mattresses. Two barges 20 x 50 ft. were lashed 
end to end, and a platform and set of ways built thereon. 
The weaving was done on the ways. When the weavers 
reached the top of the ways, the boat was dropped down 
stream. The mattress is of willow brush, pieces being 1 
to 2 ins. diam. at the butt, an5 15 to 25 ft. long, woven 
with an over and under stitch, like the seat of a cane 
chair. It is 12 ins. thick and 86 ft. wide, and is strength- 
ened and held by %-in. galvanized wire cables anchored 
to 12 X 12-in. pine deadmen on the top of the bank. The 
mattress projects 3 ft. above low water. The mat- 
tress force consisted of 1 foreman, 10 laborers skilled 
in weaving, 10 laborers passing brush to the weav- 
ers, 3 laborers to pass the brush from scow along- 
side to the weavers' helpers, 5 laborers weaving 
the cables through the mattress, 3 laborers digging 



588 EANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

and filling deadmen holes, and 1 waterboy, or 33 
men in all, at $1.50 per day per man. This force would 
average 90 lin. ft. of mattress in 10 hrs., or 287 cu. yds. of 
mattress. 

After a sufficient length of mattress was floating on the , 
water, it was sunk by placing upon it stones weighing 100 
to 200 lbs. each, which were delivered by a barge. A gang 
of 30 men would unload 150 cu. yds. of stone from the 
barge upon the mattress in 3 hrs., sinking 200 lin. ft. of 
mattress. 

The bank above the mattress, which was graded to a 
1:2 slope, was paved with rough one-man stone up to 2 
ft. above high water, the thickness of the paving being 
8 ins. at the top, increasing to 12 ins. at the low water 
line. A force of 28 men wheeled the stone on run planks 
from barges in the river, the extreme distance being 
about 60 ft. The width of the paving on the slope is 54 
ft., and these 28 men, with 4 pavers, averaged 100 lin. ft., 
or 5,400 sq. ft, or 150 cu. yds., in 10 hrs. The stone layers 
began at the top (reversing the usual procedure), and laid 
the stone sloping uphill, so that each stone was self-sup- 
porting. Upon this rough slope wall (the stone of which 
received no hammer dressing), a layer of spalls and crushed 
stone 2 ins. thick was spread, and all joints were thus 
filled. The cost per lOO lin. ft. of this brush and stone 
revetment was as follows: 

Grading bank, labor $10.25 

Grading bank, fuel and supplies 2.25 

60 cords willow brush, delivered, at $1.75 105.00 

800 lbs. %-in. galv. cable, at 4 cts 32.00 

48 clips (7/16-in. iron), at 5 cts 2.40 

6 deadmen, 12 x 12 ins. x 4 ft, at $1 6.00 

Labor weaving mattress 55.22 

75 cu. yds. stone for ballasting, at $1 75.00 

Labor ballasting mattress 6.50 

150 cu. yds. stone for slope paving, at $1 150.00 

Labor laying 150 cu. yds. paving 51.70 

47 cu. yds. spawls, at $0.50 23.50 

Labor spreading 47 cu. yds. spawls 15.43 

Administration , 18.25 



COST OF MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES. 589 

Care of plant, $7.50; and repairs, $1.50 $9.00 

Rent of plant lOO.OO 

Surveys 5.00 

Ice 3.00 

Towage, other than for stone and brush 8.25 

Total $678.75 

The plant consisted of 1 grading outfit, 1 mattress boat 
and 6 barges, 25 x 100 ft. 

Cost of Clearing Land. — The cost of clearing the mar- 
gins of Indian Lake, N. Y., for 35 miles, was about $12 
per acre for 1,160 acres. Men were paid $1 a day and 
board; and the board cost about 50 cts. a day. Foremen 
(1 foreman to 20 men) were paid $35 a month and board. 
Each acre, it was estimated, ran from 50 to 75 cords of 
wood. Each laborer averaged one-fifth acre cut per day, 
including some piling, but no burning of the timber; so 
that the cutting cost $7.50 per acre. There was no large 
merchantable timber, all having been cut down years be- 
fore. The growth was mostly small pines, balsams and 
various hardwoods. The methods of clearing are described 
in Engineering News, May 18, 1899, p. 314. 

In the work for the filter beds at Brockton, Mass., 1894, 
there were 18.8 acres cleared and grubbed, of which 14.4 
acres were standing pine. The trees varied from 6 to 24 
ins. in diameter; and there were about 3 trees per sq. rod. 
When cut up, about 35 cords of wood per acre were ob- 
tained. The total cost of pulling and disposing of stumps 
was $112 per acre, or 23 cts. per tree. Wages of laborers 
were $1.50 a day. 

The contract prices for clearing and grubbing through 
the dense forests on Puget Sound, Washington, often run 
as high as $500 an acre. This is probably the most dif- 
ficult work of its kind in America. 

A very common price for clearing and grubbing forest 
land in the eastern part of America is $50 an acre, when 
wages are $1.50 a day. 

Cost of Cordwood and Cost of a "Wire Rope Tram- 
way. — In Engineering News, March 21, 1891, Mr. B. Mc- 
Intire describes and illustrates a wire ropeway built by 



590 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

him in 1884 in Mexico. He states that when the inclination 
of an endless traveling ropeway is greater than about 1 in 
7 it will run by gravity, the speed being controlled by a 
brake. A ropeway running 200 ft. per min. with buckets 
at intervals of 48 ft, each carrying 160 lbs., will deliver 
20 tons per hr. By using two clips close together on the 
rope, loads of 700 lbs. per bucket may be carried. This 
particular ropeway was used for carrying cordwood to a 
mine. Its total length was 10,115 ft. between terminals, 
and the difference in elevation was 3,575 ft. The longest 
span between towers was 1,935 ft., the shortest, 104 ft.; 
there were 10 towers and two terminals. Hewed timbers 
were used for the towers, being much better than round 
timbers in maintenance. The rope was 13/16-in. diam., 
plow steel, of 300,000 lbs. strength per sq. in., bought of 
the California Wire Works. It was transported on 7 mules 
in lengths of 2,250 ft., each mule carrying a coil 321 ft. 
long, with a piece 10 ft. long between mules. The coils 
were 24 ins. diam. There were 3 men required to every 
7 mules. Care must be taken to lead the mules on a steep 
ascent to prevent a sudden rush that may throw a mule 
over a precipice. The ropeway, after erection, was lubri- 
cated best by using black West Virginia oil (instead of 
tar), applied continuously at the rate of a drop a minute. 
This was vastly better than intermittent oiling. The cost 
of this ropeway was as follows: 

Upper terminal $ 192.45 

Lower terminal 218.00 

5 trees fitted for towers 103.00 

5 towers 854.25 

Counterweight tower 169.00 

Remodeling towers 332.00 

Stretching, splicing and mounting rope, attach- 
ing clips and baskets 255.00 

Total labor cost of construction $2,123.70 

Opiening and maintaining roads 1,822.30 

Ropeway, materials and transportation 15,454.00 

Total cost in running order $19,400.00 



COST OF MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES. 591 

This is equivalent to about $10,000 a mile. During 9 
mos. the ropeway was operated at a cost of $400 a month, 
and handled 660 cords per month; the items of cost being 
as follows for 9 mos.: 

1 brakeman, at $52 per mo $ 468 

3 men filling, at $26 per mo. each 702 

1 man dumping, at $40 per mo 360 

1 man looking after line and oiling, at $26 234 

Oil 117 

Repairing (very heavy, $2.25 per day) 526 

2 men wheeling wood away from terminal 468 

2 men receiving wood from choppers and deliver- 
ing it to packers 702 

Total for 9 mos $^,577 

It will be noted that the cost of labor was low, being 
$1 a day for common labor. The cost of cutting and de- 
livering wood to the tramway was $2.20 per cord, and the 
cost Of transporting by the tramway, as above given, was 
60 cts. per cord (not including interest on the plant). 
During the previous year the cost of cutting and teaming 
wood had been $12 per cord. The total saving to the com- 
pany, after deducting cost of tramway, was $33,500 the^ 
first year. 

Cost o£ Lining a Reservoir With Asphalt. — In Trans. 
Am. Soc. C. E., 1892, Vol. 27, p. 629, Mr. James D. Schuy- 
ler discusses the use of California asphalt for lining two 
reservoirs of the Citizens Water Co., at Denver, Col. 

The earth slopes of a reservoir were first sprinkled and 
rolled with a 5-ton slope roller, operated by a hoisting en- 
gine mounted on rails on top of the embankment. Slopes 
were 1% to 1, and depth of water was 20 ft. Beginning at 
the bottom the asphalt was laid on the earth slopes in 
horizontal strips 10 ft. wide, 1% ins. thick, spread with 
hot rakes, tamped with hot tampers, and ironed with hot 
smoothing irons. Asphalt was hauled 2% miles and de- 
livered at a temperature of 250°. While the asphalt sheet 
was still warm, anchor spikes, of % x l-in. strap iron 8 
ins. long, were driven through the asphalt into the bank 



592 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

in rows 1 ft. apart. Every other row was driven flush, 
the alternate rows being temporarily left projecting V^ 
ins., to serve as a rest for 2 x 4-in. strips of lumber, form- 
ing steps for the workmen. When the finishing coat came 
to be applied these spikes were driven in flush. 

The bottom was coated with asphalt 1 in. thick, and 
after tamping was rolled with a cold 5-ton steam-roller. 
The finishing coat of refined Trinidad asphalt, fluxed with 
residuum oil, was poured on hot from buckets and ironed 
with smoothers heated to cherry red. When first applied 
the irons produced a yellow smoke, and had to be moved 
rapidly, but thus only could a good bond be secured with 
the first coat. 

The cost of asphalting a reservoir having a bottom area 
of 87,300 sq. ft. and a side-slope area of 65,300 sq. ft.^ or 
a total of 152,600 sq. ft., was as follows: 

1,304 tons, 20% asphalt mastic, 80% sand, at $12. $15,648.00 

15 tons, 15% asphalt mastic, 85% sand, at $10.. 580.00 

, 86.21 tons liquid asphalt fiuxed with oil, at $40. 3,448.40 

Fuel for heating irons and for steam roller 276.02 

Lights 36.00 

Tools 179.75 

Pegirons, material and labor of cutting and 

dipping in asphalt 650.00 

Labor 1,921.50 

Use of roller 6 days 60.00 

Total for 152,600 sq. ft, at 14.94 cts. per sq. ft. .$22,799.67 

Mr. Schuyler informs me that, as nearly as he can re- 
member, men were paid $1.75 per 10-hr. day, although pos- 
sibly the rate was $2 a day. 

The second reservoir was lined in a manner similar to 
the first, just described. The total area of bottom and 
slopes was 143,670 sq. ft, which required 1,156 short tons 
of the asphalt and sand mixture for the first coat; and as 
this mixture weighed 127 lbs. per cu. ft. after compression, 
the average thickness was 1.53 ins., requiring 16 lbs. per 
sq. ft. The finishing coat was % to 14-in. thick, and re- 



COST OF MISCELLANEOUS STRICTURES, 59S 

quired 1.24 lbs. of asphalt per sq. ft. The cost of lining 

this reservoir was as follows: 

Cts. per sq. ft. 

Materials for first coat 8.98 

Materials for second coat 2.48 

Labor, fuel, spikes, etc 1.99 

Total cost of both coats 13.45 

In preparing the mastic for the first coat 78% of La 
Patera asphalt and 22% of Las Conchas fiux were boiled 
together in open kettles for 12 hrs., at 250° to 300°, with 
frequent stirring. Then 20% (by weight) of this mastic 
was mixed with 80% of sand heated to 300°, a cylinder with 
strong paddles being used for the mixing, which took about 
2 mins. The charge was dumped into a cart, hauled to 
the reservoir and dumped upon a wooden platform, and 
thence taken in hot scoops, spread and raked. Hot rollers 
were then used, and they were superior to tamping and 
ironing. These rollers were made from sections of cast 
iron pipe, turned smooth on the outside, and fitted inside 
with a hanging basket in which a fire was maintained. 
For the bottom rolling a 30-in. pipe was used; for the 
slopes a 14-in. pipe, pulled with a %-in. wire cable passing 
over a pulley at the top of the slope, was used. 

Asphalt as a reservoir lining possesses several advan- 
tages: It will not crack even when there is considerable 
settlement of the embankment. If cracks do occur it is 
easily patched, the new material uniting perfectly with 
the old. 

To prevent earth from crumbling and rolling down upon 
the partly completed asphalt, it is often wise to plaster 
the earth with a mortar of sand, cement and lime to a 
thickness of nearly 1 in., which will cost about V2 ct. per 
sq. ft. On this should be spread a thin coat of liquid as- 
phalt as a binder, which would have the additional ad- 
vantage of protecting the asphalt from ground water. To 
prevent accumulated ground water from forcing off the 
asphalt lining, when the water in a reservoir is drawn 
down, it is often necessary to' provide broken stone drains 
back of the lining. These drains may be led to a receiving 



594 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

well connected with the reservoir by pipes provided with 
valves opening automatically into the reservoir. 

Ice, 18 ins. thick, has been frozen fast to the asphalt 
lining all around, and the water lowered and raised again 
3 or 4 ft. without damaging the lining in the least. 

I am informed (Sept., 1904) by Mr. Geo. S. Prince, Asst. 
Ch. Engr. the Denver Union Water Co., that this asphalt 
lining has not been durable. *'It has run considerably on 
the slopes and this has resulted in the cracking and dis- 
integrating of the asphalt so that considerable expense has 
been involved in keeping it in anything like serviceable 
condition and we would not consider using it again in this 
connection, preferring rather to employ concrete linings." 

Cost of Handling and Screening Cinders. — Cinders 
are often used in concrete and for other purposes. The 
following data have been abstracted from an article in En- 
gineering News, Aug. 18, 1904, by Mr. Ernest McCullough: 

The cost of unloading and screening soft-coal locomo- 
tive cinders for a filter bed was as follows: The 
filter bed consisted of a lower layer of cinders 
27 ins. thick and an upper layer 9 ins. thick. The 
lower layer comprised all cinders that would pass a screen 
of 1-in. mesh, but that would not pass a %-in. mesh. The 
upper 9-in. layer would pass a %-in. mesh, but not a %-in. 
mesh. Unscreened cinders were shipped in gondola cars 
holding about 32 cu. yds. each, and were unloaded near 
the filter bed, screened and conveyed in wheelbarrows to 
place. The freight on car load was about $36. In one 
shipment of 16 cars there were 2 cars of ashes so fine as 
to be rejected without screening. The others gave the fol- 
lowing proportions: 

Clinkers not passing 1-in. mesh ^ 10% 

Cinders passing 1-in., but not passing %-in. mesh 75% 

Cinders passing %-in., but not passing %-in. mesh. ... 5% 
Fine dust, under %-in 10% 

Total 100% 

It was found that cinders in a pile exposed for two weeks 
to the rain and weather weie so disintegrated that 33% 
would pass a %-in. mesh. 



COST OF MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES, 595 

One man, using a coal scoop, would unload 32 cu. yds. 
from a car in 10 hrs., and as this yielded about 24 cu. yds. 
of coarse screened cinders, the cost of unloading was 6 
cts. pef cu. yd., wages being $1.50 a day. Another man, 
using a scuop, would shovel the cinders upon the first 
(1-in.) screen at the same rate. But it took two men, us- 
ing ordinary square pointed shovels, to screen through 
the %-in. screens, and these men screened the material 
twice, because it would not pass through these screen^ 
rapidly, nor at the first screening. A fair estimate of the 
cost of unloading and screening the coarse (1-in. to %-in.) 
cinders is as follows, the cinders being measured in place 
in the filter bed: 

Per cu. yd. 

Unloading cars - $0.06 

Coarse (1-in.) screening 0.06 

Pine (%-in.) screening twice 0.24 

Wheeling and spreading in bed 0.08 

Total $0.44 

The freight was about $1.50 per cu. yd. of screened cin- 
ders, and the cost of loading the cars about 16 cts. more, 
making a grand total of $2.10 per cu. yd. of coarse screened 
cinders in place in filter beds. 

Since all the cost of loading, unloading and freight has 
been charged to the coarse cinders, the cost of the fine 
cinders (% to %-in.) was merely the cost of screening 
them twice through a %-in. screen, or 24 cts. per cu. yd. 
plus 8 cts. for wheeling and spreading. When these fine 
cinders were perfectly dry, once over the %-in. screen was 
enough; but, if very wet and largely dust, screening three 
times over the %-in. screen was necessary. 

Since the proportion of fine screenings (% to %-in.) wslb 
so small, it was necessary to buy a number of car loads 
of screenings and waste all the material over %-in. size. 
The freight, when charged against the fine screenings, was 
about $12 per cu. yd. due to the fact that not more than 
3 cu. yds. of fine screenings could be obtained from a car 
load. An attempt was made to grind up some of the 
coarse screenings using a farmer's feed mill operated by 



596 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA, 

horse power. The mill would grind at the rate of ly^ 
cu. yds. of cinders in 10 hrs., but so many iron nuts, bolts, 
washers, etc., were in the screenings that the mill was con- 
tinually forced to stop, and finally its use had to be aban- 
doned. 

I may add that the specific gravity of soft coal cinders 
is 1.5 and that the voids are frequently as high as 60%, 
in which case 1 cu. ft. of cinders weighs 37% lbs. 

Cost of Puddle. — Puddle is a mixture of gravel and 
clay which is wet and rammed or rolled into place. Many 
engineers use the clay as they would a mortar to fill the 
voids in the gravel. A few engineers use the gravel mere- 
ly to insure the crumbling of the sides and roof of any 
incipient hole in the puddle so as to fill it up. 

Fanning gives the following proportions measured loose: 

Cu. yd. 

Coarse gravel 1.00 

Fine gravel 0.35 

Sand 0.15 

Clay 0.20 

Total loose 1.70 

This when mixed, he says, will make 1.3 cu. yds., and 
when thoroughly rammed 1.25 cu. yds. 
Another mixture given is: 

Cu. yd. 

Gravel l.OO 

Sand 0.35 

Clay 0.25 

Total 1.60 

This when mixed and spread makes 1.16 cu. yds., and 
when rammed 1.1 cu. yds. 

When clay is not available, very fine sand and a little 
loam can be used to fill the voids in gravel. Where pud- 
dle is used to cover a large area, like the bottom of a res- 
ervoir, the gravel is first spread in a layer about 3 ins. 
thick, the clay is spread over the gravel, and the sand over 
the clay in their proper proportions. Then an ordinary 



COST OF MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES. 597 

harrow is dragged by a team back and forth until mixing is 
complete. Water is next sprinkled over in amount suffi- 
cient to cause the mass to knead like stiff dough under a 
2-ton sectional roller. Such a puddle is as heavy as con- 
crete and resists abrasion almost as well. With labor at 
$1.50 and teams at $3.50 the cost is 8 cts. per cu. yd. for 
spreading by hand, 5 cts. for harrowing, 2 cts. for 
sprinkling and 5 cts. for rolling, making a total of 20 
cts. per cu. yd. of puddle; but an exacting engineer can 
readily make the cost double this amount, bringing it 
to 40 cts. per cu. yd., which is about what it costs to 
spread, sprinkle and roll a cu. yd. of macadam. 

Where puddle is used in confined places, like trenches, 
it must be mixed like concrete and rammed to place. The 
cost of mixing by hand and ramming the puddle is 30 to 
50 cts. per cu. yd. On the Erie Canal, with wages $1.50 
for 10 hrs., the contract prices for mixing and laying pud- 
dle ranged from 20 to 60 cts. per cu. yd., the average price 
being 35 cts., and this did not include the materials. 

Cost of a Bridge Foundation Excavation and Coffer- 
dam. — Mr. Walter N. Frickstad gives the following data 
on bridge foundation work, done by force account, by the 
Southern Pacific R. R. in Nevada, year 1902-3. In cross 
Ing the Humboldf River the line made a very sharp angle 
with the river, but a skew bridge was not used. There 
were two abutments and one pier. To build the east abut- 
ment an L-shaped coffer-dam of sand bags, filled in be- 
tween with earth, was used. The long leg of the L was 
100 ft. long, and the shofl leg 40 ft. long. This enclosed 
a triangle of water, bounded by the two legs of the L- 
shaped coffer-dam and the shore line of the river. The 
sand filled sacks were wheeled to place and deposited by 
men provided with long handled shovels and sticks to 
guide them to place; but it was not found practicable to 
buiTd the sacks up in tiers, for the air spaces in the sacks 
buoyed them so that they were easily displaced by the river 
current. It was intended to leave a 3-ft. space between 
two tiers of sacks, to be filled with puddle, but this space 
became choked with sacks. It was found impossible to 
pump out this dam with a one-man sewer ''deluge" pump, 
so a bank of earth was deposited outside of the dam of 



598 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

sacks. Where the current was swiftest, the earth was rushed 
to place with a steady stream of wheelbarrows, the coarsest 
gravel being used as a riprap on the loam and sand; and, 
in spite of current of 5 ft. per second, the embankment 
held its place. Then with 4 men on a shift, two working 
while two rested alternately in 15-minute periods, the 
dam was pumped dry in 2 days and 3 nights, at a cost 
of $19 per 24 hrs. To reduce the area, to be kept pumped 
out, a cross-wall of sacks, 30 ft. long, was put in. About 
2,230 sacks were used, all told. 
This work cost as follows: 

Building L-shaped dam, 53 days, at $1.50 $79.50 

Filling its slope with earth, 32 days, at $1.50 48.00 

Building cross-wall of dam, 30 days, at $1.50.... 45.00 

Excavating mud and loose rock, 24 days, at $1.50 36.00 
Pumping until masons were above water line, 85 

days, at $1.50 • 127.50 

Foreman, 9 days, at $3 27.00 

Total $363.00 

While the masons were at work on the east abutment, 
the coffer-dam of the center pier was built in a manner 
that proved to be the cheapest and requiring the l6ast 
equipment of all the methods of coffer-damming used. To 
get to bed rock there were 2 ft. of silt, 7 ft. of gravel and 
boulders and 5 ft. of boulders. Tests with long drills had 
led the engineers to believe that solid rock was 5 ft. nearer 
the surface, the boulders being mistaken for solid rock. 
The pier was of masonry with a sharp nose at each end, 
so the coffer-dam was made of similar shape and with 
a length of 55 ft. from nose to nose, and an outside width 
of 16 ft. The coffer-dam consisted of sheet piling driven 
by hand as fast as the excavation progressed inside, just 
as in ordinary sheeting of a sewer trench. The rangers, or 
waling pieces, 'to support the sheet piling were made of 
8 X 17-in. Oregon pine, drift-bolted together to form a 
frame, as shown in Fig. 29, This frame was laid flat just 
above the surface of the water, being temporarily sup- 
ported by a bar of river sand at one end and by a pair 
of wooden horses (4 ft. high) near the other end. These 



COST OF MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES. 



599 



horses were built and sunk in the stream, and planks laid 
out from the sand bar, upon which to push the frame to 
place on l^^-in. gas pipe rollers by four men using pinch 
bars. About one-third of the frame overhung these horses, 
and the water was 7 ft. deep at the outer nose of the 
frame. Holes were dug 2 ft. deep under the three corners 
of the frame that rested on the sand bar, and temporary 
posts set in these holes to support that end of the frame. 
Then excavation was begun, 8-ft. lengths of sheet planking 
or piling being driven, starting at the nose of the frame. 
A heavy wooden maul was used to drive the sheeting. 
When 12 of these 3 x 12-in. sheeting planks had been driven 
down a short distance, earth and manure were piled out- 




FIG. 29. 

side. Then the lines of sheeting were continued out into 
the river, using longer plank. Finally several of the sheet- 
ing planks were temporarily spiked to the frame, the 
horses removed, and plank driven to close the gaps. Earth 
and manure were banked up outside the sheeting. It was 
found necessary to deflect the river current, which was 
washing away this earth and manure, and to do this a 
wing dam of sacks filled with sand was built, and coarse 
gravel and sand-filled sacks used to riprap the outer end 
of the earth and manure fill. The water was readily 
pumped out, and excavation begun. It was found that the 
sheeting was sloping inward, so a second frame was built 
of 6 X 12's inside the excavation and at the bottom of the 
sheeting; then the driving of the sheeting was continued 
^smd this second frame was lowered as the excavation 
progressed. Once the gravel caved and two sheet plank 



600 



HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 



were forced in, but quick work with brush, manure and 
earth closed the hole. When the excavation was 7 ft. be- 
low the water surface, and rock was not encountered, It 
was decided to build a third frame and drive a second 
tier d'f sheet plank inside, and sloping outward, as in Fig. 
30. This was begun when the flow of water became so 




•FIG. 30. 

great that a 6-HP. Fairbanks, Morse & Co. combined 
gasoline engine and pump was installed, and no further 
difficulty occurred in getting down to bed rock. The cost 
of this pier excavation by force account was as follows: 

Labor excavating, etc., 324 days, at $1.50 $486.00 

Labor pumping, 136 days, at $1.50 204.00 

Engine-runners, 50 days, at $3 150.00 

Four-horse team, 6 days, at $6 36.00 

Carpenter, 8 days, at $3 24.00 

Foreman, 24 days, at $4 96.00 

115 gallons gasoline, at 15 cts 17.25 

300 sacks, at 15 cts 45.00 

10 M of pine, at $3D 300.00 

Total $1,358.25 

Salvage value of 5 M of pine removed 150.00 



I 



Total for 280 cu. yds. excav., at $4.30 $1,208.25 



COST OF MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES. 601 

I have assumed the prices and rates of wages as above 
given, although m fact they may have varied slightly. 
The number of days' work and the amount of materials 
is exact. It will be noted that half the timber in the 
coffer-dam was recovered and used elsewhere. The cost of ex- 
cavation was high, because no derricks were used, but the 
shoveling was done in stages; moreover, there was a large 
quantity of boulders, and trouble with pumps caused con- 
siderable delay. 

The excavation for the west abutment, though much 
larger than for the pier just described, was done in the 
same manner. The coffer-dam inclosed an L-shaped area, 
about 60 ft. long on each leg of the L, and about 20 ft. 
wide. The waling frames were built in place after the 
site had been excavated to the water level with drag 
scrapers, and the second and third frames in due course. 
In lowering the frames from time to time as the excava- 
tion progressed, it was found almost impossible to drive 
them down with a 16-lb. sledge or a wooden maul. Even 
a 6-in. x 12-in. x 8-ft. wooden rammer, operated by two 
men, failed to drive the frames. It was found that by 
loading the shoveling platforms, 2 ft. wide by 16 ft. long, 
with gravel, one platform being loaded on each side the 
section to be lowered, a slight tapping produced any de- 
sired amount of settling. The excavation was not carried 
to bed rock, but the abutment was founded on the gravel 
and boulders, at a depth of 12 ft. below the water surface. 
The cost of this work was as follows: 

Team on drag-scraper, 18 days, at $3.50 $ 63.00 

Laborers, 748 days, at $1.50 1,122.00 

Carpenter, 35 days, at $3.00 105.00 

Pump engineers, 140 days, at $3.00 420.00 

Foreman, 35 days, at $4.00 140.00 

45 tons coal, at $6.00 270.00 

150 gallons gasoline, at 15 cts 22^.00 

22 M lumber, at $30 660.00 

Total $3,005.00 

Salvage value of 11 M lumber removed 330.00 

Total, 700 cu. yds., at $3.82 $2,675.00 



602 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Hauling Heavy Macliinery on Wagons. — In hauling 
cement and coal to the Spiers Falls Dam from Glens Falls, 
N. Y., I found 'thv; average load was 2 net tons per team 
of horses. The loads ranged from 3,500 to 4,500 lbs. The 
haul was 9 miles, one way, and a round trip constituted 
a day's work. Teamsters were paid by the ton. The road 
was sandy, but level, except for about half a mile at the 
end. Two teams were hitched onto a wagon to pull up 
this hill at the end. 

Some very heavy pieces of machinery were hauled on 
wagons. One piece of machinery weighing 14 tons was 
slung between two heavy timber beams whose ends rested 
on bolsters on the wagons. Thus the piece of machinery 
was really slung between two wagons, one wagon in front 
and one behind. In order to steer the rear wagon a sim- 
ple steering gear was made, very much like the steering 
device for controlling the rudder of a ship. It consisted 
of a pilot wheel mounted at the forward end of the rear 
wagon, and a drum from which two ropes passed around 
pulleys to the stub tongue of the wagon. One man could 
thus steer the front wheels of the rear wagon. With 12 
horses this 14-ton load was hauled over the sandy road. 

A heavier load, 28 tons, was not loaded on wagons, but 
was hauled on rollers, a temporary timber way being laid 
in front of the rollers, as in house moving. It took 12 
teams 9 days to haul this load the 9 miles. 

Size, Weight and Price of Expanded Metal.— The 
following are standard sizes of expanded metal: 

Gag^e of Width of Sectional area Lbs. per 

Mesh. Metal. Metal. per ft. of width. sq.ft. 

3-ln No. 10 3*5 in. 0.185 sq. Ins. 0.65 

" - M in. 0.278 " 0.94 

" " A In. 0.370 " 1.25 

6-in No. 4 X in. 0.259 " 0.86 

•' " % in. 0.389 *' 1.29 

The 3-in. mesh is sold in 6 x 8-ft. sheets; the 6-in. mesh, 
in 5 X 8-ft. sheets; and in both cases, 5 sheets per bun- 
dle. These are the common sizes, but expanded metal of 
the following meshes is also made: %-in., %-in., 1%-in., 
and 2-in. The mesh is measured the short way across the 
diamond. 



COST OF JillSCELLAXEOUS STRUCTURES. 603 

Expanded metal is sold by the square foot, but at prices 
equivalent to about 5 to 6 cts. per lb., depending upon 
the locality and the size of mesh. For expanded metal lath 
see page 530. 

Price of Mineral Wool. — Mineral wool is ordinarily 
made by pouring molten slag into water. It is largely 
used as a filling in hollow walls, because of its heat in- 
sulating property. I have also used it as a packing around 
water pipes that were exposed to the air. In carrying a 
pipe line across a bridge, for example, the pipe may be 
laid in a box and surrounded with mineral wool. A steam 
pipe may be jacketed in the same way. 

Ordinary mineral wool weighs about 12 lbs. per cu. ft. 
and may be bought for about 1 ct. per lb. 

Cost of Sodding. — In Engineering News, June 2, 1904, 
Mr. Arthur Hay gives an excellent description of the 
methods of sodding a park in Illinois. The best sod shovel 
Is a ''moulder's shovel," with a flat blade 10 ins. wide and 
12 ins. long. The edge should be drawn down thin on an 
anvil and sharpened on a grindstone. The sod is cut 
through in parallel lines 14 ins. apart, with the shovel held 
at an angle so as to give bevel edges to the roll of sod. 
The sod strip is cut off square at the ends so as to make 
a strip about 8 ft. long (a square yard), and rolled up. 
One hundred of these rolls make a good wagon load, 80 
being about the usual load. Sod should be cut as thin 
as possible, say 1% to 2 ins. thick. Sod cut thicker, with 
the idea of saving all the roots, never unites with the 
bank when laid on an earth slope. When the rolls are 
laid, fine earth should be sifted into any cracks between 
the rolls. The sod should be thoroughly soaked with water 
after it is laid, and tamped to expel air underneath. A 
good tamper, or spatter, consists of a piece of 2-in. oak 
plank 10 ins. wide by 18 ins. long, strengthened by cleats 
across the ends and with a tough wood handle 2 ins. in di- 
ameter and 4 ft. long. One end of this handle is beveled 
off and bolted to the plank so that when the plank lies 
fiat on the ground the end of the handle is waist high. 

The following was the average cost of laying 20,000 sq. 
yds. of sod by day labor for the city of Springfield, 111.: 



604 HANDBOOK OF COST DATA. 

Cts. per sq yd. 

Cutting sod 1.6 

Hauling sod 0.9 

Laying sod 2.6 

Watering sod 0.6 

Spatting sod 0.1 

Total 5.8 

Men were paid $1.50 per 8-hr. day, and the sod cutters 
had a theory, very difficult to contend with, that 75 sq. 
yds. should constitute a day's work. Average contract 
prices in the vicinity were 10 cts. per sq. yd. of sod in 
place. 

Seeding can be done for about $20 an acre, the cost of 
80 lbs. of seed being $10, and the cost of labor being about 
$10 more. On slopes gentle enough to hold the seed with- 
out washing, seed is preferable to sod on account of its 
cheapness. An acre of sod, at 6 cts. per sq. yd., would cost 
about $300. 



INDEX 



Page 

Abu-tmen-t 324, 326, 327 

Air drill, see Drill. 

A ir compressor 109, 491 

Arch bridge... 331, 332, 334, 388 

Arch centers 207, 246, 330. 

331, 333, 335, 353, 355, 366, 
370, 372, 375, 382, 448, 450 

Arch culvert 327, 330 

Arch masonry, see Concrete, see 

Masonry. 
Ashlar, see Masonry. 

Asphalt pavement 171, 175 

reservoir lining. . .293, 591 

Auger, pneum'atic 491 

Ballasting 546 

Barrel, cement 256, 257 

tar 523 

Bid, unbalanced 33, 59 

Binder 139 

Bit, drill 114 

Blacksmithing 408 

Blast-furnace foundation... 335 

Block, pavement 167, 171 

see Concrete block. 

Bioard measure ^ 44, 488 

•Bondsmen 64 

Bonus 67 

©oring, see Timber boring, see 
Pile boring. 

Breakwater 300 

Brick arch, tunnel 247 

chimney 528 

cleaning 167 

laying, see Brickwork, 
loading and hauling. . .158, 
297. 526. 

manhole 359 

masonry, see Brickwork. 

pavement 157 to 166 

reservoir lining 293 

sewer, see Sewer. 

size 45, 157, 525 

weight 158 

Brickwork, cement required, 

438, 448, 452, 453 

data 525 

excavation 360 

laying... 297, 439-453, 457, 

459, 526. 
mortar 525, 527 



Page 

Bridge, erection 552 

foundation excavation. 597 

Howe truss 496, 497 

moving 556 

painting 558 

surface area 557, 561 

tearing down 555 

trestle, see Trestle, 

weight 550, 557 

Broken stone, see Macadam, see 
Stone. 

Brush revetment 587 

Building block, see Concrete 
blocks. 

Building, brick 525 

cost of items by per- 
centage 515 

<;ost per cu. ft 513 

cost per sq. ft 514 

frame 516 

paper 522 

Bush -hammering concrete.. 383 

Cableway 220, 315, 353, 367 

418, 423-426. 

Caisson 507 

Camping, equipment 570 

Car, Goodwin 546 

Rodger 547 

rolling resistance 92 

sizes 93, 508 

Oart (see 'also Wagon) 82 

Cast-iron pipe, price. .. .392, 394 

Cement, barrel 297, 305,350 

block, see Concrete block. 

curb 179 

pipe 459 

quantity in mortar and 

concrete 250-256 

walk 176 to 179 

weight 256 

Chimney, brick 528 

Churn drill 102, 105 

Cinders 594 

Clamshell bucket 340 

Clay puddle 596 

Cleaning efflorescence 389 

walls 529 

Clearing land 589 

Clock 13 



606 



INDEX. 



Page 

Concret(> blocks 356, 359, 364 

bucket 339 

busb-bammering 383 

cement required. . .250, 255, 

288, 289, 291, 297, 298, 

303, 304, 309, 314. 325, 
328, 329, 335, 342, 347, 
348. 353, 356, 357. 

definitions 248 

excavation 388 

forms, cost... 283-286, 288, 

289, 304, 305, 309, 314- 
319, 322-324, 327 to 330, 
341, 354, 360, 362, 366, 
369, 379, 381. 

forms, design. 308, 310-312, 
325, 326, 389. 343, 3-57, 
361, 366, 370, 372, 375, 
382. 

bauling 275, 349, 352 

loading 275 

mixers. .281, 282, 300, 306, 
307, 315, 320, 322, 333, 
337, 338, 340, 348, 350, 
353, 363, 386, 458. 
mixing, cost. .269-281, 288- 
293, 298 to 304. 309, 314 
to 321. 326 to 332, 335- 
341, 345 to 353, 357 to 
366, 369, 374, 379, 380. 
pavement base. . . .163, 165, 
344-349. 

piles. Raymond 467 

ramming 277, 300, 301, 

304, 307, 312, 314, 315, 
318, 321, 324, 326. 336, 
337, 338, 345 to 349, 362, 
374. 

reinforced, see Concrete- 
Steel, 
shrinkage by tamping 

297, 298 

spreading 276 

subaqueous 339 

Concrete-steel, arch 334 

columns 360 

conduit 374-382 

labor on steel. 373, 374, 381 

sewer 365-374 

Coal, see Fuel. 

Cofferdam 503, 506 597 

Compressor, gasoline, air. . 109 
Conductor's punch 10 

Conduit (see also Vitrified 
conduit) 359, 374, 452 



Page 

Contingencies 29 

Contract prices, danger of 

relying upon 25 

indexing 54 

Contracting vs. Day labor. . 40 

Contractors, hints for 47 

Cord, definition 101 

Cordwood 589 

'Cost-keeping, objects of 1 

Cost-items, schedule 32 

Cost plus a fixed sum 41 

Crane, electric 533 

locomotive 339, 343 

Creoso'ting 489 

Crushing, see Stone crushing. 

Crusher 132, 135 

Curb 179, 181 

Dam, timber 504 

see Masonry. 

Day-labor work 40, 355 

Demurrage 44 

Depreciation 26, 56 

Derrick-work 47, 193, 317, 

338. 385. 

Development expense 56 

Dinkey 92 

Discount 31 

Dock 481 

Docking 479 

Door 520 

Drain, see Tile. 

Drag-scraper 84 

Dredging 484, 507 

Dressing, see Stone dressing. 

Drill, air 106 

coal used 108 

cost to operate ...... 115 

hand 102 

holes, spacing 120 

repairs 114 

isteam used 107 

Drilling, effect of size of hole 103 

feet per day 110 

lost time 109 

plug-holes 203 

speed 110, 112, 113 

timing 23 

Dump-car, see Car. 

Dynamite 46, 122 



mDEX. 



GOT 



Page 

Earth, kinds 74 

loosening 79 

measurement 73 

shrinkage 73 

swelling 73, 407 

Earth excavation 367, 549 

foundation 597 

hydraulic 587 

pump-pit 415 

road 143, 145 

steam shovel. .90, 95, 118, 
546, 547. 

street 161, 162, 166 

trench, see Trenching. 

Efflorescence 184, 889 

Electric railway 549 

Electric conduit 455-459 

Elevating grader 88 

Engines, handling 46 

fuel 29 

Estimating cost 25, 35, 48 

Excavation, see Earth excava- 
tion, see Rock excavation, see 
Trenching. 

Expense, general 29 

Expanded metal 602 

lathing 530 

Explosives 46, 122 

Falsework 552 

Felt 522 

Fence 517, 550, 585, 586 

Floor 512, 517 

Flume 505 

Food 567 

Foremen 42, 50, 70 

Forms, see Concrete forms. 

Fortification 299 

Frauds, statute of 39 

Freight, demurrage 44 

Fuel, for engines 29 

Gas-pipe railing 561, 586 

Gasoline 326, 362 

compressor 109, 555 

pump 414 

General expense 58 

Goodwin car 546 

Grader 88 

Grading, see Earth excavation. 

Granite, block pavement... 170 
see Stone, see Masonry. 



Page 

Gravel roof 523 

voids ...261-265 

Grout 161, 184,292 

Grubbing 589 

Gumbo 75 

Hair 530 

Hand -railing .586 

painting 561 

Hardpan 75 

Harrowing maeadatn . .150, lo2 

Hauling. ...11, 75, 83, 119, 135. 
145, 146, 241, 242, 272, 
602. 
see Team. 

Hints for contractors 47 

Horse, see Hauling, see Team. 

Howe truss 496,497 

Hydrant 407 

Hydraulicking earth 587 

Tee, boring 584 

Indexing prices 54 

Instructions to foremen.... 42 

Insurance 31, 418 

Iron, see Oast-iron, see Steel. 

Lathing, metal 530 

wood . . , 529 

Lead, definition 75 

price 396 

Lime 527, 528 

List prices 31 

Locks, canal 302-315 

Locomotive 92 

crane 339, 343 

Lumber, dressed 512 

classification 511 

manufacturing 489 

specifications oil 

see Timber. 
Macadam 132, 134, 137, 140 

resurfacing 147, 149, 

152, 153. 
Machinery, depreciation. .26. 56 

selecting 51 

Man, food 567 

Manhole, see Sewer manhole. 



608 



INDEX. 



Page 
Masonry, brick, see Brickwork. 

buildings 529 

cost-keeping ..... 8 

definitions 182 

excavating 192, 244 

laying. .191, 202, 205, 206, 
209-213, 216 to 220, 223 
to 226, 231-233, 241, 243, 
245, 529. 
mortar required. 188 to 191, 
227, 228. 

pointing 244 

sewer -cradle 447 

Materials, purchasing 38 

record card 17 

Mattress, bruslh 587 

Mill building 531 

Mimeograph 12 

Mineral wool 603 

Minute-hand observations . . 20 
Mixer, see Concrete mixer. 
Mold, see Concrete form's. 

Mortar, cement required 250, 

253, 256, 297. 
cube-mixer will not 

make 307 

lime 527 

per cent, in masonry 

188-191 
water required for. . . . 266 

Oiling wire rope 590 

Overhaul 73 

Paint 556, 557 

Painting bridges 558, 566 

tin roof 558 

Paper, building 522 

Pavement, see Asphalt, Brick, 
Macadam, Stone Block, 
concrete base... 344 to 349 

Perch 101 

Pier 324, 336, 339, 387 

Pitch 523 

Pile, batter 480 

blasting 486 

boring 486 

concrete 4^7 

definitions 461 

Pile-docking 479 

Pile-driver ...462, 464, 472, 476 

Pile-driving 334, 469 to 483, 

487, 499. 

timing 465, 469, 471 

Pile, pulling 485,486 

rails 556 

sawing off... 469, 472, 479, 
482, 484, 485. 

sheet 478, 480 

steel 556 



Page 

Pile trestle 472-479 

Pipe, see Cast-iron pipe; see 
Sewer-pipe; see Water-pipe. 

Plank road 509 

Plant, depreciation . . . .26, 56 

rental 27, 53, 56 

selecting 51 

Plaster 290. 294, 530 

Plate-girder 532 

Platform, station 517 

Plowing 79 

Plug-drilling 203 

Pneumatic auger 491, 555 

riveter 554 

Poles, erecting 551 

fence, see Fence. 

Powder 122 

Prices 25, 54, 61 

Profit ., 30, 48 

Puddle 596 

Pumping 414, 419, 420, 422, 

427, 446, 598. 

Pump pit 415 

Quarrying (see also Rock, 
and Stone).. 128, 130, 131, 134, 
201, 204, 205, 209, 210, 214, 
216, 223, 232, 234, 240, 241, 
245, 292, 294, 322. 

Quicksand 75 

Rails, unloading 536 

Railway buildings 514 

cheapest 548 

electric 549 

lines 547 

logging 548 

survey, see Survey, 
track, see Track-laying. 

Ransome bars 381 

Rations 567 

Record cards 9, 68 

Reinforced concrete, see Con- 
crete-steel. 

Rental, plant 27, 53 

Reservoir 390 

asphalt lining 591 

concrete lining 288-296 

wooden roof 501 

Retaining wall ..315, 318, S2A, 
330. 



INDEX. 



609 



Page 

Revetment, brush 587 

River bank revetment 587 

Riveting, pneumatic 554 

Road 7, 28, 134 

plank 509 

roller 52, 137, 153 

Rock, measurement lOO 

quarrying, see Quarry- 
ing. 

trench 124 

see Stone . 

Rodger car 547 

Roller .. .. 80, 137, 143, 148 

Roof, corrugated steel .... 533 

gravel 522 

P'ainting 558 

slate 524 

tin 521, 558 

truss 532 

Roofing, felt 522 

Rubble, basement 528 

definition . . ... .187, 189 

see Masonry. 

Rubble concrete 383 

Rules for foremen 42 

Sand, artificial 267 

cost 2GG 

shrinkage 35G 

voids 258, 261 

washing 267, 269 

Sand pump 508 

Sawing, see Piles, see Tim- 
ber. 

Scarifying imacadam 152 

Scow 504 

Scrapers 84 

Seeding 603 

Service connections 405 

Sewer, 'accident insurance. . 418 

arch centers 448, 450 

brick . .373, 374, 437 to 453 

table of yardage. 439 

concrete 447, 450 

concrete block 356 

concrete steel ....365-374 

contract prices. . . .433, 443 

egg-shape 440 

manhole 359, 435, 441, 

457, 459. 

pipe, cement required. 459 
laying 426, 431, 434 to 
437. 

prices 428 

stone cradle 447 

trench bracing. .. .418, 421- 
424, 435-437, 517. 



Page 

Sheet piles 478, 480 

Shingling . . '. 519 

Sideboard , 521 

Slate roof . . . . , 524 

Slide rule 20 

Slope wall 191, 233 -243 

Smelter building 532 

Snatch team 77 

Sod 603 

Specials, price 405 

Specific gravity 44, 99 

Sprinkling 80, 138, 154 

Stairs 521 

Statute of frauds 39 

Ste'am' roller 137, 143, 148 

Steam shovel ..90, 95, 118, 546, 
547. 

Steel buildings 531 

Steel, corrugated 531 

expanded metal 367 

painting 557 

wire cloth 369 

Stone block pavement. . .167-171 
Stone, breaking by hand... 130 

crushing 128, 130, 131, 

132, 134, 146, 291, 293, 
296, 307, 319 to 322. 
dressing, 193-206, 209, 210, 
245 

hauling 119, 272 

loading 116, 118 

masonry, see Masonry, 
quarrying, see Quarry- 
ing. 

sand 267 

sawing 195 

shoveling 117, 270 

shrinkage 101, 356 

sizes 101, 129 

swelling 100 

voids 100, 261-265 

weight . . 99, 129, 262, 263 

Strikes 70 

Subaqueous concrete 339 

pipe raying . . . .410 to 413 

Subletting 38 

Subway, N. Y 554 

Superintendence 29, 278 

Supplies 58 

Surety Company 64 

Survey, railroad 572-575 

topographic 577-584 



610 



INDEX. 



Page 

Sylvester wash 389 

Tar 523 

joints 167, 171 

Team, feeding 77 

Teaming 11, 76 

see Hauling. 

Telford road 155 

Ties, hewing 535 

loading . . . . 536 

Tile drain , 454, 455 

Tile fireproofing 528 

Time-keeping . . . 12 

Timing, minute-hand 20 

Timber, boring ..491, 494, 555 

ereosoting 489 

hauling 490 

sawing 490 

weight 45 

see Lumber. 



Timberwork 416, 496 

arch centers 

'buildings 

caisson 

cofferdam ... .503, 506, 

crib, 220, 499. 501, 

falsework 

iforms, see Concrete 

forms. 

flume 505, 

footbridge 

•Howe truss bridge . . . 

measurement 

pier 

reservoir roof 

sheet piles, see Piles, 

sheet plank 

trench bracing, see 

Sewer, 
trestle,. . 95, 472-479, 

495, 496, 506, 535. 
viaduct 494, 



•509 
207 
516 
507 
597 
502 
.^22 



507 
556 
496 

488 
487 
501 

480 



492, 

496 

Tin roof 521, 558 

Ton 101 

Tool box 509 

Topographic survey, see Sur- 
vey. 



Page 

Track, ballasting , 546 

narrow gage 95 

surfacing 539 

Tracklaying 535, 537-545, 549 

Tramway, wire rope . . . . 589 

Traction engine 146 

Traction, resistance 92 

Traveler 344 

Trench excavator 426, 441 

machine 418, 419, 420, 

436, 442, 443. 
Trenching, earth 357, 367, 

395-410, 418-427, 434- 

437, 442 to 445, 451. 
rock 124 

Trestle . .95, 472-479, 492, 496, 
506, 535. 

Tunnel lining 245, 355 

Unbalanced bid 33, 59 

Underestimates 35 

Units of meas^urement 37 

Viaduct painting 560 

steel 553 

timher .. 494, 496 

Vitrified conduit 455-459 

pipe, see Sewer pipe. 

Voids 99, 258. 261, 265 

Wages, computing 20 

Wagon, see Hauling. 

Walks ...176-179 

Washers, cast-iron 499 

Water pipe 392 

laying 396-410 

subaqueous 410-413 

taking up 410 

wood 413 

Weight of material's 44, 09 

Wheelbarrow work, 81, 160, 272, 
300, 327. 

Wheeled scraper 86 

Window 520 

Wire cloth 369 

Wire-rope tramway 589 

Wood, fuel 589 

Wood pipe 413 

Yarn, price 401, 405 



ABYERTT^EMEl^T^. 



Always "QN THE JOB 

Wherever a larg-e number of different makes 
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ii ADVERTISEMENTS. 

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ADYERTIF^EMENTS, xiii 

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R, W. SHERMAN, Prest. UTICA, N. Y. 



ADTERTTSEMENT8. 



Municipal Engineering Magazine 

Keeps engineers informed of the latest and best engineer- 
ing problems of cities throughout the entire country. 

It treats in a clear, concise and practical way upon such 
subjects as concrete and cement construction in all forms, 
street paving of every kind, street lighting, water works, 
sewerage and sewage disposal, and public sanitation. 

To men interested in these subjects, and to many others 
that come within our scope, MUNICIPAL ENaiNEERING will 
prove invaluable to them. 

Over 1000 pages a year; Subscription Price, $2.00 a year 



The Hand^Book for Cement Users 

Meets the practical every day needs of the engineer, 
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the best cement, how to write specifications for the work into 
which the cement is to go, how to put the cement together, 
and how to estimate the quantities of materials required and 
their cost. 

There is no other book published that devotes its space 
entirely to the practical side of the use of cement, leaving out 
all theory and unnecessary data that to the average person 
are confusing. 

The demand for such a publication has been so urgent 
that three editions have been necessary in four years. 

Pull Cloth, 365 pages, $3.00 



The Directory of American Cement 
Industries 

The only representative of the cement trade, giving data 
concerning cement plants and names of persons engaged in 
the manufacture of cement, brands, sales agents, dealers, 
contractors, engineers, chemists, makers and dealers in 
machinery for cement users, manufacturers and dealers in 
lime and plaster, etc., etc. 

Tli'rd Edition, up-to-date, full cloth, 740 pages, $5 00 



Municipal Engineering Co« 

Dept. F 28 S. Meridian Street, Indianapolis, Ind. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. xv 

*' WILL GO ON YOUR BOND ^' 

TELEPHONE EDWARD B. SOUTHWORTH, Jr. 

5820 JOHN HULBERT T. E. BEARDSLEY 

Resident Vice-Presidents & Managers 



American Bonding Company of Baltimore 

Capital, $500,000. Surplus over $400,000 

34 NASSAU ST., Mutual Life Building 

NEW YORK 



Offices in all the principal Accepted as Sole Surety 

Cities and Towns in the U. S. By the U. S. Government 



Contractors' flDacbineri^ 

Bew an& Secon&==1banD 

Locomotives Steam Shovels Dump Cars 

Scrapers Steam Pumps Hoisting Engines 

Traction and Portable Engines 

Boilers of all sorts New and Relaying Rails 

Air Compressors Rock Drills, Etc* 

THOS. P. CONARD 

n9 South Fourth Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



ROCK EXCAVATION 

METHODS AND COST 



I By 

HALBERT POWERS GILLETTE, 

M. Am. Soc. C. E.; M. Am. Inst. M. E.; B. M. School 

of Mines, Columbia University; Late Assistant New York 

State IHnglneer; I'ate Aissoiciate Editor 'Engineering News. 



CONTENTS.— Rocks and Their Properties.— Methods and Cott 
of Hand Drilling. — Machine Drills and Their Use. — Steam and 
Compressed Air Plants. — The Cost of Machine Drilling. — Cost of 
Diamond Drilling. — Explosives. — Charging and Firing. — Methods 
of Blasting. — Cost of Loading and Transporting Rock. — Quarry- 
ing Stone. — Open Cut Excavation.— Methods and Costs on 
the Chicago Drainage Canal. — Cost of Tren3he& and Subways. — 
Subaqueous Excavation. — Cost of Railway Tunnels. — ^Cost of 
Drifting, Shaft Sinking and Stoping. 



The book contains 384 pages, with some fifty-six figures and 

illustrations in the text. Its size is 5 X 7l^ inches, 

bound in linen. 



PRICE, $3.00, NET 



iMYRON C. CLARK 

Publisher and Bookseller 

13-21 Park Row, New York. 



ADVERTISEMEyTS. 



xvii 




«^v^x';w^^Wm^^^ 



The Ransome Concrete Mixer consists of a steel drum 
revolving on rollers. There are deflectors, rigidly attached 
to the inside of the drum, which scoop up and turn the 
materials over and over. To discharge a batch, simply 
turn the crank that lowers the discharge chute. The mixer. 
itself does not tilt to discharge, and this is a great eco- 
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get out of order. Moreover, this puts the charging chute 
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all other kinds combined. Let us tell you where you can 
see one working in your neighborhood. 

We are the oldest mixer makers, but we make the newest 
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our catalog **HB." 

The Ransome twisted steel bar for reinforcing concrete 
is at once the cheapest and the most reliable. 

RANSOME CONCRETE MACHINERY COMPANY, 
11 Broadway, New York. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



EARTHWORK 

AND ITS COST 



By 

HALBERT POWERS GILLETTE, M. Am. S'oc. C. B. 

Associate Editor Engineering News; E. M. School of Mine.s, 

Columbia University; Late Assistant New York 

State Engineer; Member American Institute 

of Mining Engineers. 



CONTENT'S.— The Art of Cost Elstimlating.-^Earth Shrinkage.— 
Earth Classification. — Cost of Loosening and Shoveling. — Cost of 
Dumping, Spreading, Rolling, etc. — Cost of Wheelbarrows and 
Carts. — Cost by Wagons. — Cost by Buck and Drag Scrapers. — Cost 
by Wheel Scrapers. — C'ost by the Elevati^ng Grader. — ^Cost by 
Steam Shovels. — Cost by Cars. — How to Handle a Steam Shovel 
Plant — Summary and Table of Costs.— Cost of Trenching and 
Pipe Laying. — The Cose of Hydraulic Excavaftion. — Cost of 
Dredging. — ^Misicellaneous Cost Data. — ^Earth andi Earth Struc- 
tures. — Rapid Field and Office Survey Work. — Overhaul Calcula- 
tion. — A Small "Home-Made" Dipper Dredge or Steam Shovel. — 
Detailed Description and Drawings. — Cost of Making the Dredge. 
—Cose of Operating. 



The book contains about 2G0 pages, with some fifty figures and 

illustrations in the text. Its size is 5 x 7% ins., 

bound in linen. 



PRICE, $2*00, NET 



MYRON C. CLARK 

Publisher and Bookoeller 

13-21 Park Row. New York. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



TWO 



LABOR and COST SAVERS 



Sr?vS«»be Concrete mfyet 

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Skids or Trucks 

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No Experiment 

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Widths 14 to 60 
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Send for Catalogue No. 149 



Municipal Engineering and Contracting Co. 

RAILWAY EXCHANGE, CHICAGO, U. S. A. 



XX ADVERTISEMENTS. 

Ready in October, 1905 

PRACTICAL CEMENT TESTING 

BY 

W. PURVES TAYLOR 

Engineer of Tests 

Philadelphia Municipal Testing Lahoratories 

CONTENTS 

Chapter I.— Classification and Sta- Chapter VIII.— Time of Setting. 

tlstics. Chapter IX.— Tensile Strength. 

Chapter. II.— Composition and Con- Chapter X.— Soundness. 

stitution. Chapter XL— Chemical Analysis, 

Chapter III.— Manufacture. Chapter XII.— Special Tests. 

Chapter IV. — Inspection and Chapter XIII.— Approximate Tests. 

Sampling. Chapter XIV.— Practical Operation. 

ChapterV.— The Testing of Cement. Chapter XV.— Other Varieties of 
Chapter VI.— Specific Gravity. Cement. 

Chapter VII.— Fineness. Chapter XVI.— Specifications. 

Appendices and Index 
Cloth, 6x9 inches, about 300 pages, 150 illustrations. 

MYRON C. CLARK 

Publisher and Bookseller 

13-21 Park Row, New York 

Cements, Mortars and Concretes 

THEIR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 



By MYRON S. FALK, PH. D.. 

Instructor in Civil Engineering in Columbia University 

in the City of New York. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter I.— Chemical Properties of Cement. 

Chapter II.— Physical Tests of Cement. 
Chapter III.— General Physical Properties. 
Chapter IV.— Elastic Properties in Oeneral. 
Chapter V.— Tensile Properties. 
Chapter VI. — Compressive Properties. 
Chapter VII.— Flexural Properties. 
Appendix I.— Report on Uniform Tests of Cement by the Special Com- 
mittee of the Amex'ican Society of Civil Engineers. 

Appendix II.— Constitution of Cement. 
Index. Authors' Index. 



Cloth, 6x9 inches, 184 pages, 
4 half-tones and many illustrations in the text. Price, $2.50, net. 



MYRON C. CLARK 

Publisher and BookEieller 

13-21 Park Row, New York. 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



The COWING ENGINEERING CO. 

Office, 426 Citizens BIdg., Cleveland, Ohio 



=^^^^^9, Euclid Avenue Garden Theatre 
Engineers' and Contractors' for all kinds of 

STRUCTURAL STEEL "WORK 

BRIDGE AND BUILDINGS 
ROOF TRUSSES, R- R. TURN- 
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Write for Designs and Estimates to 
The Cowing Engineering Co.. 426 Citizens Bfdg., C eveland, Ohio 



CEMENT 



A journal of advancement, eng-ineeringf, architecture, 
concrete-steel construction and fireproofingf. 

Some of the subjects recently treated which indicate 
the class of literature published : 

Reinforced Concrete Railway Ties. 

Cross-Bending Tests on Beams of Reinforced Concrete. 

Concrete Cribwork. 

A Five Year's Test of an Experimental Reinforced Concrete Arch of 
Sixty six Foot Span. 

Reinforced Concrete Construction Theoretically Considered. 

Reinforced Concrete Railway Ties. 

The Constitution of Portland Cement, Etc., Etc. 

PROGRESS PUBLISHING CO. 

J 3-2 1 Park Row, New York 

Subscription Price, $1.00 per year, single copies, 20 cents 



xxii ADVERTISEMENTS. 

OF 

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XarQcst Circulation 

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AND THE 

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It Engages the Attention, Brains, Expe- 
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$1.00 a ISear :: 10 Cents a dop^ 

Advertising Rates on Afflication 



THE ENGINEERING WORLD PUBLISHING COMPANY 
Monadnock Block, CHICAGO 



ADVERTISEMENTS. 



THE 
DIRT 
MOVER 



The leading publication for the 

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Levee Contractor 



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$1,00 Every Contractor 

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Contains all the latest information 
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THE DIRT MOVER, '=°^ag"^ 



xxiv SEP 30 \W^7^J^TISEMENTS. 



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When the 

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